Essay Three Part Two -- Abstraction: Science On The cheap
This Part of Essay Three has been written and re-written more times than any other; the first half of it still contains a few too many mixed metaphors and stylistic monstrosities. I am in fact experimenting with new ways of expressing ideas that have been raked over countless times in the last 2400 years by traditional thinkers.
It will require many more re-writes before I am happy with it; hence, the reader's indulgence is required here even more than elsewhere.
Readers should also take note of the fact that this Essay does not represent my final view on any of the issues raised. It is merely 'work in progress'.
If you are viewing this with Mozilla Firefox you might not be able to read all the symbols I have used.
Finally, this Essay continues where Part One left off, so it should be read in conjunction with it since I take many of the points established there for granted.
This Essay is over 62,000 words long; a summary of its main ideas can be found here.
Quick Links
Anyone using these links must remember that they will be skipping past supporting argument and evidence set out in earlier sections. [If your Firewall has a pop-up blocker, you will need to press the "Ctrl" key at the same time or these and the other links here won't work!]
(1) The Traditional Approach To Abstraction
(a) Dialectical Traditionalism
(b) How Not To Solve A Problem
(c) Empiricism And The Anthropomorphic Brain
(e) How Not To Solve Insoluble Problems
(f) Intelligent Ideas Versus The Little Man In The Head
(2) More Problems For Dialecticians
(a) Induction And The Social Nature Of Knowledge
(c) Reality: Abstract, Concrete -- Or Both?
(d) Collective Error Over General Terms
(3) Abstractionism -- Bury It, Or Praise It?
(a) Public Criteria Versus Private Gain
(b) Particular Problems With Dialectical Generality
(a) The Underlying Essence Of 'Being'
(b) Does Reality Contradict Appearances?
(i) Contradictions Supposedly Generated By Science
(ii) The 'Contradiction' Between Science And 'Commonsense'
(iii) 'Contradictory' Capitalism?
(c) Adrift In A Sea Of Appearances
(i) Are All Appearances 'False'?
(ii) Dialectics Goes Into Auto-Destruct Mode
(d) Why Science Cannot Undermine Common Sense
(i) Ordinary Language Confused With Common Sense
(ii) Why Scientists Cannot Afford To Undermine Common Sense
(a) 'Mental Strip-Tease'
(b) Do Scientists Use Abstraction?
(ii) The Young Marx And Engels
(6) Bertell Ollman's Traditionalism
(6) Notes
(7) References
Abbreviations Used At This Site
In this Part of Essay Three traditional answers to the 'problem' of generality ('Universals', 'Forms', 'Abstract Ideas', 'Categories' and/or 'Concepts'), and the deleterious effect they have had on DM, will be critically examined. In addition, the distinction between "appearance" and "reality", a dichotomy dialecticians have also inherited from traditional thought, will also be subjected to sustained and destructive scrutiny.
[DM = Dialectical Materialism; DL = Dialectical Logic.]
The Traditional Approach -- Rationalism And Original Syntax
As Part One of this Essay demonstrated -- and as Part Two will confirm--, beyond superficial differences, dialecticians have bought into the traditional view of 'abstract general ideas'.
In Metaphysics, reference to such ideas was intimately connected with the so-called 'problem' of "Universals".1
Rationalist Philosophers tended to argue that general words/concepts were either anterior to experience or were apprehended (through 'the light of reason') by means of generalisations drawn (or "abstracted") from, or even applied to, an unspecified number of particulars (i.e., individual objects of a certain sort) given in experience. The 'concepts', 'categories', or 'Ideas' so derived -- or deployed -- were supposed to represent the formal, constitutive or 'essential' properties of all particulars -- 'primary'/'secondary' qualities or properties (as they later tended to be known) which the latter either instantiated, or in which they were said to "participate".
Naturally, this made material objects seem less 'real' than the abstractions that lent them their substantiality, or which constituted their "essence". Because of this, the general -- the rational -- came to dominate over the particular -- the material --, in all subsequent thought originating in the Rationalist tradition. What were in principle invisible and undetectable came to be seen as more real than the world we see around us.
Hence, in view of the fact that such abstractions were ideal objects -- i.e., they were in fact abstract particulars --, this meant that for Rationalists reality was essentially Ideal. In comparison, the material world was a shadow world, not fully 'real', since it is characterised by contingency and brute fact. The rational structure that underlies appearances was the real world, and that world is accessible to 'thought' alone. If general terms constituted (or even expressed) the 'essence' of material objects, then material objects were only such because of the Abstract/Ideal Particulars that underpinned them. Naturally, this implied that the material world was only real because it was in effect Ideal -- an abstraction in its own right. [We will see Engels and Lenin reach this conclusion, arguing that the concrete is only concrete because of the abstractions to which we have to appeal to make them concrete, and thus that matter is an abstraction! [Cf., Essays Ten Part One and Thirteen Part One.]
To be sure, Descartes believed there were two substances -- Mind and Matter --, but it soon became apparent (in the work of Spinoza, and in a somewhat different way in Leibniz's writings -- and later still in Hegel's work), that there is only one rational/real substance: Mind. All else is an 'appearance', and hence 'accidental' and 'ephemeral'.
The traditional approach, which particularises general terms and nominalises verbs, has in different guises, dominated Western thought --, and now dialectics --, for 2500 years. Its logical conclusion, in the work of Leibniz and Hegel (and their latter-day disciples) merely underlines the claims made in these Essays: that all ancient, medieval and early modern forms of traditional Philosophy are ultimately Idealist. And as we will see, this approach to generality has spread its tentacles into all subsequent metaphysical forms-of-thought --, so much so that it's abundantly clear that all forms of traditional Philosophy are similarly Idealist.1a
The "ruling ideas" invented by Greek thinkers thus found a new home in these more recent Bourgeois surroundings, albeit with fresh content to mirror the new social and economic conditions.
Even when this 'theory' is flipped "upside-down" (and "put on its feet"), in DM, material reality is still viewed as secondary, derivative, dependent and not fully real. The material world, as see by dialecticians, requires the rational principles encapsulated in DL to give it life and form. After all, underlying "essences" 'contradict' "appearances", and in that punch-up, it's always "essence" that wins out.1aa
As the Book of Genesis noted, in an Ideal world it takes the word of 'God' (or something analogous) to give life and form to matter; without it, all would be lifeless, chaotic and would probably cease to exist:
"And the earth was without form, and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters. And God said, Let there be light: and there was light.... And God said, Let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters, and let it divide the waters from the waters. And God called the firmament Heaven.... And God said, Let the waters under the heaven be gathered together unto one place, and let the dry land appear: and it was so. And God called the dry land Earth; and the gathering together of the waters called he Seas: and God saw that it was good. And God said, Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind, whose seed is in itself, upon the earth: and it was so...." [Genesis, Chapter One, verses 2-11.]
In like manner, a 'Dialectical Logos' is required not just to add form to formless matter, but to call it into existence (from 'Nothing'), to give it life and make it move. Matter, even for DM-fans, is not sufficient to itself.
Because of this, it is not possible to find a single physical correlate in nature for the abstractions dialecticians use --, and since they form the essential nature of material beings, physical objects must be Ideal, too.
And that is why the dialectical "flip" is no flip.
Furthermore, and worse: over the last 150 years, dialecticians have conspicuously failed to say what they think matter is. The very most they will say is that it's an 'abstraction'(!) -- on that, see Essay Thirteen Part One -- which is no surprise given the above comments.
In that case, it's hardly surprising either to find that DM-theorists have had to denigrate ordinary material language, and thus the experience of ordinary workers (accusing it of being dominated by 'commonsense', 'formal thinking' or 'false consciousness' -- aping a tactic perfected by ruling-class theorists), in order to 'justify' their adoption of Hegelian concepts and attempt to make their theory 'work'. [These accusations will be substantiated in Essay Twelve (summary here).]
As we will discover throughout out this site, dialecticians have only succeeded in creating serious theoretical problems for themselves by their reliance on the traditional thought-forms they have inherited from boss-class thinkers. This also helps explain why every single dialectician slips into a priori dogmatics at the drop of a copula --, and why they all fail to notice when they have done it, even after it has been pointed out to them.
Moreover, as indicated above, their 'upside-down Idealism' holds the material world to be less real than the Ideal world that lends it its substance, and which determines what DM-theorists consider "concrete".
And we can now see why: for dialecticians material objects are only "concrete" in the Ideal limit. But since that limit is forever unattainable, this means that for DM-theorists there are in effect no concrete objects or processes!
How Not To Solve Problems: Double Them
Nevertheless, as Aristotle himself pointed out (in reference to Plato's Theory of Forms, in the so-called Third Man Argument), it's not a good idea to try to solve problems by immediately doubling them.
Hence, if there is a difficulty explaining the connection between particulars given in experience, there is surely a more intractable one accounting for the alleged link between these newly constructed abstract Universals and the particulars that supposedly instantiate them. Worse still, this alleged link merely connects material particulars with 'a something we-know-not-what' -- i.e., with these specially invented 'Universals' -- which resides in a mysterious world anterior to experience, and hence inaccessible to it.1b
Thus, if an abstract term is required to account for the similarities that exist between particulars, then a third term would plainly be needed to account for the similarity between that abstraction and those particulars themselves. Otherwise the connection would not be rational, just fortuitous, undermining the whole point of the exercise.
Clearly, the addition of this new term, which was aimed at accounting for this new connection, only re-duplicates the original problem. That is because questions would naturally arise over the link between this third term and the other two items it was introduced to connect.
Abstract Universals 'exist' in an Ideal realm, and they thus have connections with particulars in this world that are of a different sort from those that material particulars enjoy among themselves. Plainly, this just leaves the abstract side of this family of 'solutions' shrouded in total mystery.
Hence, if a Universal/Concept C1, say, is required to account for the common features shared by objects A and B, then a new Universal/Concept C2, a third term, will be required to account for the connection between C1 and A, and between C1 and B, and so on. The whole thing thus threatens to inflate into an infinite regress, leaving nothing explained.
Of course, it could be argued that since C1 belongs to a different category (to either A or B), the above argument is misconceived.
Well, it would be if 'Universals' and 'Concepts' had not already been turned into abstract particulars (or the names thereof, depending on how this family of theories is interpreted) by the syntactical dodge exposed in Part One of this Essay. But, because theorists have done precisely this since ancient Greek times, Aristotle's point (suitably adapted) applies to every single theory in this tradition. In which case, 'Universals' and 'Concepts', as they feature in traditional thought (and in DM), cannot be general; they are particulars of a rather peculiar sort.
Hence, the question returns: what new general term is there that can now serve to link ordinary material particulars with these newly-minted abstract particulars?
This is one of the reasons why this 'problem' has had to be addressed in the way it was in Part One of this Essay. There, the discussion was aimed at exposing the crass syntactical error that motivated it -- wherein predicate expressions were transformed into the names of abstract particulars. To be sure, Aristotle himself half spotted this problem (as we have seen), but the logic he developed was not sophisticated enough to account for its origin (and thus for its solution), and he ended up making the same sort of mistake (in what turned out to be an early precursor of the identity theory of predication).
On the other hand, if the aforementioned "third term" (i.e., C2) is superfluous, if a new general term is not needed to connect abstract and material particulars, then it is not easy to see why particulars themselves need a second term (the Universal, or C1) to relate them to one another to begin with. This is especially so if that 'general term' cannot do the job assigned it because it was earlier transmogrified into particular itself!
But, if objects in material reality do indeed relate to one another without abstract intermediaries, or if speakers manage to do this in other ways, what need is there for such abstractions?1bb
[As we will see in a later Essay, ordinary human beings (workers) solved this 'problem' long ago --, or rather they totally ignored it, since it isn't a problem.]
Alternatively, if the relation between Universals and Particulars is not one of resemblance (i.e., if C1 does not resemble A or B), then the relation between each particular and its Ideal 'exemplar' is entirely mysterious. If Universals and Particulars do not resemble each other, how can they possibly be connected, or how could the one connect the other?
Indeed, it is far from easy to see what a Universal could possibly provide a particular that the latter can't supply for itself -- and that worry is not helped when it is recalled once more that in traditional thought, Universals were depicted in ways that deprived them of their capacity to do this (once more: as we saw in Part One of this Essay).
Descent Into The Metaphysical Abyss
Unfortunately, this ancient logical error has passed down the centuries to later generations of traditional theories, as this ancestral fall from linguistic grace traduced the entire population of flawed 'solutions' that have descended from it by unnatural selection --, including that found in DM, the theoretical runt of this class-compromised litter.
Empiricism And The Anthropomorphic Brain
Philosophers of a more worldly and empiricist frame of mind approached this 'problem' from a different angle; they held that general terms were 'constructions' of some sort, cobbled together by the mind. [It's worth noticing that this also implied that the 'mental' side of the equation came first -- mind holding primacy over matter, once more.]
In fact, the mind was somehow able to 'apprehend' the common elements supposedly shared by particulars given in experience (which manifest themselves internally as "ideas", "impressions" or "sense data" -- and, of late, as "qualia").
Minimal agreement aside, such theorists tended to be divided over whether universal terms were genuine features of reality or were just a by-product of an overactive mind --, indeed, whether they were empty words and thus perhaps just "useful fictions".
As things turned out, it mattered not, for on this view general words were once again demoted and transformed into 'mental particulars' (i.e., they were the names of ideas in the mind or of processes in the brain). Even though Berkeley saw the need to escape from this theoretical cul-de-sac, his 'solution' merely sank the empiricist tradition deeper into the same old Idealist quick sands.
Unfortunately, there were other problems over and above those that had been bequeathed to empiricist thought as a result of the syntactical sins of their philosophical forebears: if 'general' ideas are in fact particular to each mind (and, on this view, they had to be such, for no two individuals shared the same mind, or the same experiences), they could not be general -- even in theory! This is all the more so if the empiricist process of abstraction created yet more abstract particulars, just as earlier forms of the same bogus exercise had manufactured rationalist abstract particulars in ancient and medieval thought.
In that case, the empiricist tradition seemed quite happy to maintain and then elaborate upon these ancient misdemeanours. This particular set of "ruling ideas" (i.e., these 'abstractions') now colonised another set of willing brains.
To explain: assume thinker T1 has formed (by whatever empiricist means) the allegedly general idea G1, and thinker T2 forms the 'same' general idea G2 of supposedly the 'same' objects. Now, in order to say of these 'general ideas' (G1 and G2) that they were indeed ideas of the same things (or, indeed, were the same general idea), a third term will be needed to connect them (i.e., because in that case G1 and G2 would presumably both be exemplars of the same general idea, say, G), so that it could truly be said that these two were instances of the same 'concept'/'idea'/'impression'. But, this falls foul of Aristotle's objection, which in turn means that every single 'solution' offered up in the Empiricist tradition suffers from the same fatal defect that blighted those that had been dreamt up by the Rationalists.
As we will see, this not only made it impossible for all traditional thinkers to account for human communication, representation and learning, it also emptied generality of all content, undermining the whole point of the exercise. [How this approach would make communication etc. impossible will be examined briefly below, but in more detail in Essay Thirteen Part Three.]
Of course, it could be objected that such ideas had intentional generality built into them --, whereby their inventors intended they should refer to general features of reality, But, as should seem obvious, 'intentional generality' is likewise trapped in its own little solipsistic universe, since it is itself a particular.
[To see this, just replace "G1" with "intentionally general idea G1" in the above argument, and the rest will follow.]
Naturally, this is just another way of saying that intentions can't create generality any more than wishes can make beggars ride.
Indeed, simply gluing the word "general" onto the word "concept" (as perhaps part of the above 'intention' to refer to a "general concept") would merely saddle prospective users of that word with a term born of the same defective logic, for the phrase "general concept" is yet another particular --, or, at least, it's the title thereof.
In fact, any attempt to derive generality from the atomised conceptual fragments that (on this view) now exist in each individual mind will always hit the same material brick wall: abstraction merely creates the names of abstract particulars --, whosoever indulges in this black art, whenever it is practiced, and with whatever philosophical approach this is attempted.
Fortunately, however, for us genuine materialists, the logic of predication (as it features in ordinary language) has already fixed the result in our favour --, and there is no leave to appeal its uncompromising judgement. Generality is a feature of the way we use words, not a property of those words themselves. [That was established in Part One of this Essay.]
It could be countered that inter-communication is not threatened by empiricist forms of abstractionism, since communication with others is not only possible, it is actual -- because, manifestly, people can and do share their ideas.
But, this response itself runs aground almost immediately. That is because it reproduces Aristotle's original problem -- only now greatly magnified. It's an even worse idea to multiply one's difficulties by a factor of several billion -- right across the entire human race -- in an endeavour to account for generality by an appeal to the abstractions forged and now trapped in each socially-atomised brain.
[To see this, just replace the "G1" above with "Gn", where "n" takes on every value from 1 to 6 billion, and more, in the above argument, and the rest should follow.]
In that case, we would not just have the two theorists mentioned above with their two supposedly general ideas, we would have billions of minds with countless individual ideas to interconnect.
To be sure, such a strategy is futile because any explanation of how the particular ideas of general terms located in separate heads actually resemble the same general features of reality they are supposed to express/mirror, or even the same particular ideas of these alleged general terms located in any one else's head, would each require its own linking term, on the lines detailed above. Accounting for these would, of course, make squaring the circle look rather easy in comparison, since this Sisyphean task would simply create yet more abstract particulars, locked in the individual mind of anyone foolish enough to try.
In short: a 'general' silk purse cannot be made out of this atomised pig's ear.
So, struggling to get out of the metaphysical quicksand only sinks the trapped Philosopher deeper in the mire. Given the traditional view, Abstract Particulars (and not general terms) loom out of the shadows at every turn, as more and more are required to account for the last batch they have just conjured into existence. And since none of them is capable of evolving into a higher general form on its own, this approach to knowledge/ontology simply creates a potentially infinite series of abstract dead ends.
Just as ancient rationalist ideas can be traced back to Aristocratic notions invented and propagated by Greek Philosophers (concerning the 'natural' hierarchical or divine order underpinning the Universe, motivated by the need to justify social stratification and inequality, etc.), the origin of more recent Atomist theories of Universals can be linked to the rise of Bourgeois 'democracy', with its characteristic emphasis on "possessive individualism".
If this new social order was meant to be democratic (but only "within certain limits"), and based on the fabled Bourgeois Individual, then private ownership in the means of mental production made eminent good sense.
The fragmentation introduced into society by the development of Capitalism was thus mirrored in an analogous dissolution of the Universal into its particulars, now dispersed across countless million isolated bourgeois heads.
Capitalism freed workers from the land, and so Empiricist Philosophy freed ideas from their formerly 'oppressive'/hierarchical Platonic Forms and Aristotelian Universals; the old ontological pecking-order crumbled as new market conditions took hold. The need both to 'justify' undemocratic power and to rationalise newly emerging class relations meant that theorists had to concoct novel ways of conceptualising reality.
As we will soon see, in this respect Empiricism could not cut mustard. A fresh wave of rationalist thought was needed to provide the unification that the (Absolutist) Bourgeois Nation State required, and to account for its sovereignty. The ideas of Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Kant and Hegel were thrown into the breach, as new waves of boss-class theory emerged from this latest batch of ruling-class hacks.1c0
Even so, just as workers still got screwed in the new market economy (only now in novel ways), general ideas were likewise shafted (but in the same old way).1c
Once more, this turn to Rationalism was to no avail; the ancient fragmentation of general ideas cannot be reversed -- whoever tries to do it. Indeed, as the fabled soldiers found with respect to Humpty Dumpty, once in pieces, general concepts are impossible to put back together again.2
No surprise then that despite many pretensions to the contrary, this modern batch of theories found it equally impossible to account for the very thing they had been invented to explain: generality.
If generality is simply an aspect of the mind's operation (and not a feature of 'things-in-themselves' -- as some rationalists claimed) --, it was far from easy to see what it was about each particular idea of the general located in each head that made it general, or even appear to be general, now that one and all had been hived-off and lodged in individual bourgeois skulls.
Given this 'modern' account, there would be nothing but individual ideas loosely tied together in ways that became increasingly difficult to fathom, floating about in each socially-atomised mind. At a minimum, even a general idea like this (i.e., that which apparently concerns "every individual", and seeks to tell us what is in his or her head, now coded as 'Thought', or "The Understanding', or 'Speculative Reason') is, on this theory, itself devoid of any clear sense. If Philosophers could not explain generality (because they had killed it stone dead long ago), then they had no way of accounting for its appearance, or lack of it, anywhere else --, either in the general population, or in their own attempts to theorise about it in their own heads. Indeed, how is it even possible to speak of "every head" with anything other than empty words if generality had already been done to death?2a
As noted above, some attempt might be made to attach to "idea" the as-yet-to-be-explained term -- i.e., the word "general" (as in, say, "general idea") --, but, if all meaningful words in circulation have to be backed by genuine mental bullion (i.e., if they all have to be cashed-out in terms of "ideas" in the mind, as this family of empiricist theories consistently claimed), then a phrase like "the general idea of..." would still be particular to whoever thought it, whatever associationist incantations had been uttered over it.
The definite article, of course, gives the game away.
In that case, for Empiricists "general idea" would be as empty a phrase as "general particular" was for Rationalists.
As we saw in Part One, the words Philosophers used in this context were, or designated, abstract particulars, and as such feigned generality like this meant that these terms amounted to little more than epistemological 'promissory notes' -- of little real value if there was nothing in the bourgeois vaults to settle these burgeoning 'semantic debts'.
Thus it was that in the empiricist tradition several more centuries of a priori, abstract 'science-on-the-cheap' followed, this time backed not even by printed currency, but by yet more empty words.
Of course, to imagine otherwise (i.e., to imagine that the particular word "general" -- or any other term for that matter --, is quite up to the task of creating generality all by itself) is tantamount to thinking that words can determine, or project, their own meanings right across semantic space (with this feat miraculously coordinated across each and every epistemologically isolated bourgeois brain), as if they were autonomous agents. But unaided, as a mark on the page --, or even as an "idea" in the head --, the individual word "general" seems entirely incapable of unscrambling this very real metaphysical omelette.
On the other hand, if general ideas actually do represent "things-in-themselves" (that is, if there are indeed "real universals" that exist somewhere, to which general words supposedly 'correspond'), it would surely prove impossible to explain the signification of either term --, as we are about to see.
If each general idea/word refers to something, somewhere in reality, in Platonic heaven or Hegelian Hell, it could only do so as a name, or as name surrogate. In which case, as we saw in Part One, general ideas/words would not now be general, just particular.
Even if they were each grandiosely re-christened as a "General Name", one and all would stubbornly remain humble particulars (in this case, a particular phrase, and for reasons outlined above). No matter what was done to each particular instance of the word "general", it would prove quite incapable of escaping from the atomised dungeon into which it had been cast.2b
Hence, if each bourgeois mind had its own individual idea of a given general name, one that was particular to each, then the universality that post-Renaissance theorists sought would forever remain elusive, fragmented as it now was in the heads of all who wanted to play this futile game, with these rules.
The bottom line is, of course, that if anything general is capable of being named, it cannot be general, it must be particular.
And, as is the case with virginity, once lost, generality cannot be restored.3
How Not To Solve Insoluble Problems
Empiricists attempted to solve this intractable 'problem' by wisely diverting attention from it: they invented an irrelevant 'mental' capacity, an ability the 'mind' allegedly had of being able to spot "resemblances" between the ideas and impressions the senses sent its way.
But, once again, Aristotle's objection rears its annoying head: if there is a problem over the existence of resemblances like this in the outside world, it's a bad idea to retreat from the Real into the Ideal in an attempt to resolve it. Indeed, if this process takes place only in the 'mind', the difficulty the theory sought to resolve in external reality will now simply resurface in an occult form -- and in a completely intractable realm -- since an inner process of this sort would be beyond either objective or subjective confirmation.4
Generality, thus driven inwards, is even more difficult to coax out of its individualised shell.5
Platonic Realism, Aristotelian Conceptualism and Bourgeois Empiricism (along with a host of other metaphysical doctrines) all run aground on these unyielding particularist rocks.
By way of contrast, the words we use in ordinary language express generality (with ease) when left to social agents to breath life into them. However, they soon lose their semantic vitality when they are replaced by lifeless abstract singular terms, invented by work-shy 'thinkers' with more leisure time on their hands than is good for anyone.6
However, by placing all the emphasis on an individual's apprehension of generality (howsoever this is engineered), theorists found they could only explain it by re-employing generality surreptitiously somewhere else.
This unfortunate turn-of-events arose largely because traditional Philosophers tended to conceive of this 'problem' epistemologically. The logical fall from grace that created the original 'difficulty' for Greek thinkers (explained in detail in Part One) was simply ignored, buried now under centuries of irrelevant psycho-babble. And there it largely remains entombed to this day.6a0
As Empiricists conceived things, if experience presents the mind with particular ideas, then generality must be cobbled-together from whatever resemblances the 'it' notices in each alleged exemplar. This made the whole 'problem' seem one of recognition, as if the fragmented contents of the mind were like the faces of long lost friends who had wandered fortuitously into the same room, in strict order.
Friends one can recognise; but how could anyone recognise an idea they had never seen before?
No good doing a Police photo-fit.6a
Worse still, not one of these impromptu 'visitors' would resemble the next without the use of the general terms this 'theory' was meant to explain!
Anyway, given this family of theories, general terms had to be distilled painstakingly from a manifestly finite batch of examples, those that serially confronted each lone abstractor and/or observer in random order.
But, if each lone 'mind' is to extrapolate successfully from the few particulars that fortune tossed its way, then, in order to create the relevant abstract general ideas, each atomised fragment would have to be coaxed out of its lonely shell, and given a radical make-over.
In order to do that, the 'mind' would have to re-connect these inner atoms (these 'ideas') with others of the 'same sort', using whatever similar features it noticed in each. But, not only does this make it hard to explain how any two abstractors could ever form the same idea of anything, it makes the whole process dependent on similarity.
This new twist now introduced yet another general idea through the back door, while failing to explain either the general or the particular that had just slipped out the front. If two things are similar then plainly this must be with respect to some feature they hold common, which feature (of necessity) cannot itself be another particular (or it would not be held in common).
Nevertheless, just as theologians discovered with respect to their ideas of the Trinity (in, for example, the Athanasian Creed: "Neither confounding the Persons, nor dividing the substance"), so empiricists found with regard to their fragmented ideas of generality: it was impossible for them not to confound the particular without dividing the Universal.6b Hence, if each individual shares exactly the same universal of resemblance (say G1, from earlier), then that term must be particular to that individual. The general, having thus been distributed over the entire flock of trainee abstractors, cannot now fail to partake of this fragmented nature.
Conversely, if the re-distribution of generality hadn't been carried out in a perfectly egalitarian manner, the relevant individuals would not be collected under the same general term, shared equally between all.
On the other hand, once more, if generality is shared equally, it would be hard to tell individuals apart.
And how might either of these be accurately ascertained across an entire population of lone abstractors?
No good doing a Gallup Poll.7
In that case, the choice between confounding the individuals, or dividing the substance plagued Empiricists (and Rationalists), as it had done Trinitarians -- and for the same basic reasons, since this entire family of doctrines had been sired by the same inherited syntactic sins.
All of which helps explain the continual oscillation in traditional Ontology between Monism, Dualism and Pluralism.
Intelligent Ideas Versus The Little Man In The Head
Problems do not, of course, stop there. Any answer to the question how the 'Mind' sifts through the 'ideas' of particulars the senses send its way, sorting them correctly into the right groups, would surely have to appeal to a prior grasp of general words (in public use). Without this pre-requisite, inter-subjective 'objectivity' would surely be an empty notion. Minus the jargon, this is, of course, a point Kant made.
Indeed, this is just another way of saying that ideas cannot be expected to sort themselves neatly into groups, since they have neither the motivation nor the wit to do so. They clearly need regimenting. But, in the age-old battle between the One and the Many, the Many have always proved to be far too rebellious to marshal themselves in strict order, the One far too Ideal to crack the whip.
However, if regimentation is possible, and achievable -- and if 'objectivity' is to be preserved --, then principles external to the said (Many) ideas must be found to lend the 'Mind' (the One) a helping hand. Care in the community of ideas was never more needed than here. And yet, if the latter is to become more than a fragmented heap of conceptual dust (that is, if there is in this bourgeois community of ideas no such thing as "society", to paraphrase Mrs Thatcher), such care must be sought elsewhere.
As seems plain, the required sortal principles can't be self-explanatory, nor can they be self-regulatory. If they were either of these, then there would seem to be no reason why ideas themselves can't troop unaided into the right metaphysical categories -- certifying their own inter-subjective resemblance without an internal drill-sergeant on hand to whip them into shape.
Alternatively, if every idea were self-regulating and self-disciplined, that would remove the need for a 'Mind', with its attendant goons to do the regimenting.
Clearly, the first option would see the 'mind' as a sort of drill sergeant (thus anthropomorphising it); the second would put it out of work with a compulsory redundancy notice.
[There are echoes of both sides of this dilemma in Cognitive Psychology and Behaviourism: the first anthropomorphises the brain, the second banishes the 'Mind'. More on this in Essay Thirteen Part Three.]
Of course, Empiricists claimed that the 'Mind' was somehow capable of extrapolating way beyond sets of particulars given in experience (or the impressions they created) to general ideas. This handy 'solution' left unexplained how this "extrapolation" could be carried out without the 'Mind' already having some notion of the general to guide it.
And, as Kant wondered, where on earth would that notion come from?
Nevertheless, if particulars are to be corralled by the 'Mind' into the correct sortal groups, there seemed to be only two ways this could come about:
(A) The first involved an appeal to specific 'mental faculties' (these days called "modules"), which all novice abstractors supposedly possess -- mental "bodies of armed men", as it were -- to do the marshalling. Bourgeois Ideas, born free, would everywhere have to be put in chains. This is the mental equivalent, perhaps, of the Absolutist State.
(B) The second appealed to the "natural properties" that ideas and/or "concepts" were supposed to have, which meant that they could regiment themselves 'voluntarily' into the right sortal categories with no outside assistance. This is the mental equivalent, perhaps, of an Anarchist Utopia.
Taking each in turn:
(A) One version of this alternative postulated the existence of so-called "innate ideas" of resemblance 'programmed' into the mind, activated or guided either by the "laws of thought" or the "natural light of reason".
[Its modern analogue has these 'hard-wired' into the brain as a sort of "transformational grammar" (now called "Unbounded Merge") or even a "language of thought."]
An older version of this theory saw these innate ideas capable of enabling each aspiring abstractor to classify particulars under the relevant general terms. Naturally, that seemed to place this option in the Rationalist camp, and perhaps because of this the temptation became irresistible to push the source of these innate principles back into the mists of time -- spruced-up of late with a handful of Neo-Darwinian fairy-tales.
If so, original syntax is now based on Genetics, not Genesis.8
Other versions of option (A) were not even remotely Empiricist: these were to be found in the Cartesian/Leibnizian/Kantian/Hegelian tradition, for example.
Nevertheless, each variant shared the same fundamental premiss: abstract concepts or ideas were alive and well, and were either living in a skull near you, or were camped out nearby in 'objective' reality, waiting to be enlisted --, presumably, merely by being thought-about.
Even more convenient was the fact that although abstract ideas were held somehow to be real, they also transcended actual or possible detection by any genuine or imagined materially-based technique -- rather like the gods of yore. And, as was the case with the ancient divinities, such abstractions underpinned, gave substance to, or even created material reality.
In fact, on this view abstract ideas were more real than material objects; they were merely contingent beings hardly fit to mention in Ideal company.
Clearly, since these abstractions had been named, they must exist somewhere; linguistic reification in fact made them Super-Real (since they were somehow above and beyond unreliable, contingent 'appearances'), in order to be worthy of the Super-Scientific truths they supposedly delivered. Even better, doctrines like this had somehow been programmed into subject-copula-predicate sentences -- alas, only in the Indo-European family of languages.
As we saw in Part One of this Essay, science-on-the-cheap like this has dominated practically all forms of abstract thought since Greek times -- it is indeed a ruling ideology.
(B) The second of the above options implied that ideas 'naturally' congregated of their own 'free will', as it were, into their 'correct' sortal groups. But, if ideas are capable of assembling themselves into classes under their own steam, they must possess some sort of 'herding instinct'. Clearly, in order for them to gather together correctly, such ideas must either:
(B1) Possess an intellect of their own, or
(B2) Be capable of obeying other natural/logical laws of some sort.
As far as (B1) was concerned, ideas were not only capable of 'recognising' those of the same kind, they were bright enough, and meek enough, to flock together with no further ado. This implied that they were able to, (B1a) 'Detect' the resemblances they shared with others of their sort -- which surely meant once more that they were really surrogate minds, skilled at identifying their own close 'mental relatives' correctly and unerringly.
Alternatively, spontaneously gregarious ideas like these were (B1b) 'Programmed' to behave as if they could act this way.
In short, these two sub-options (B1a and B1b) traded on the belief that: (i) Ideas were just minds writ small, or (ii) Minds were little more than incarnate ideas.
The first of these options (B1a(i)) found safe lodging in Leibniz's own mind (whether this was his own idea, or he was programmed to think it was is somewhat unclear) -- wherein everything in reality is 'really' composed of pre-programmed, inter-reflecting 'minds' (or "Monads").
The second (B1a(ii)), in a much grander form, parasitized Hegel's brain. There Mind was self-developing Idea, the Supreme Controller of the Metaphysical Mystery Tour. To be sure, Hegel certainly thought he was the engineer of his own ideas, but if he was right, he was just the oily rag.
In connection with (B2), above, the idea seemed to be that natural 'laws' operating on the contents of the 'Mind' could account for their regimentation in strict battalion order (an old idea that resurfaces these days in naturalistic accounts of 'the mind'). Once again, this merely reduplicated the very problem it was meant to solve, for this meant that an externalised will ran both the inner and the outer universe, as everything in this unified Mental Cosmos obeyed orders as if one and all were law-abiding citizens.
Clearly, in order for something to be capable of obeying orders it must be intelligent (otherwise, the word "obey" used in such a context must have a different meaning). But, in like manner, 'inner ideas' must also be intelligent, only now supposedly governed by 'the laws of thought'. They aren't simply the passive occupants of the human brain, but active citizens in this inner Cosmic/Cognitive State. In that case, the Inner Microcosm once again mirrors the Outer Macrocosm (and vice versa), as mystics continually remind us: the Mind is well-ordered because the Cosmos is too, and vice versa.
Small wonder then that traditional accounts of causation (and of physical law) are shot through with anthropomorphism, mysticism and animism, and can only be made to work if inappropriate modal terms (like "necessity" and "must") are press-ganged into service.8a
Naturally, this in turn suggests that 'objective laws' and the objects that 'obeyed' them were merely a reification of the subjective mental capacities and dispositions of the one indulging in all this armchair speculation.9
Conversely, this implied that the human mind was intelligent because the universe was (this idea can be found in the odd idea that the universe became conscious of itself as a result of the emergence of humanity (Teilhard de Chardin, and Bergson, among many others), a doctrine also retailed by DM-fans -- Ted Grant, for example) -- which conclusion itself was just a reflection of the mangled Logic used to mirror the thoughts of the superhuman alter-ego that allegedly ran the entire show, which we met in Part One.
In this scheme of things, not only was the Real Rational, and the Rational Real, there was in fact only the Rational.
Be this as it may: both options readily collapse into Subjective and/or Objective Idealism -- as we have seen.10
Yet More Problems For Dialecticians
Traditional 'solutions' to these bogus philosophical 'problems' ("bogus" because in the West, they were based on a class-motivated misinterpretation of a tiny section of Indo-European grammar, as was pointed out in Part One of this Essay, and in Essay Two) created two further difficulties.11
Oddly enough, both of these re-surface in a modified form in the DM-account of abstract ideas.
Induction And The Social Nature Of Knowledge
The first of these later came to be known in traditional Philosophy as "the problem of induction". This centres on the theoretical possibility that future events might not conform to expectations or remain within the conceptual straight-jacket the 'mind' has prepared for it.12 If the mind is capable of experiencing only a limited range of exemplars (from which it has to cobble-together its general ideas), subsequent experience could always refuse to play ball, metaphysically rebelling, as it were.
In that case, the future might not resemble the past in any meaningful sense. Not only might the Sun not rise tomorrow, but cats could refuse to walk about on mats, and even possibly annoyingly turn into them. Worse still, fire might no longer burn books on Metaphysics -- as Hume had hoped -- but write them instead, and Hegel might even begin to make sense.
Of course, some philosophers reckon it's possible to neutralise such sceptical conclusions if the mind could find a way to gain direct knowledge of 'abstract' ideas (or Real Universals, or General Concepts, etc.), which are fully capable of regimenting the contingencies of nature, so that the future is guaranteed to resemble the past.
But, in order to control such potentially rebellious events/ideas, something a little more convincing than Locke's Social Contract, or Hume's laughably feeble habitus (habit), is called for. Ancient Greek ideas about the ordered Cosmos -- a limited Whole, devised at a time when an Aristocratic theory like this seemed to make some sort of sense to ruling-class theorists --, did not translate well into this newly fragmented bourgeois world, one threatened daily by unruly material particulars.12a
In such surroundings, not only must these controlling Concepts/Abstractions be robust enough to run things behind the backs, as it were, of their producers (i.e., traditional theorists), they must exist prior to, and be independent of experience -- or, suffer the slings and arrows of outrageous fortune themselves.
Initially, for "crude materialists", at least, it wasn't easy to account for the source and effectiveness of such concepts, -- i.e., those that would countenance no exceptions, past, present or future. The rescue for materialists (if such it may be called) arrived from an unexpected source: German Idealism. More specifically, and even more revealingly, this 'rescue' turned out to be an impossibly convoluted version of Ancient Greek Hermeticism.
The Seventh Cavalry had thus arrived in the nick of time, but it was, alas, blowing a very indistinct note, possibly none at all. Esoteric Flannel now replacing Errol Flynn.
The 'Epistemologically Imperialist Utopias' concocted by these Idealists required the invention of Super-Duper Concepts, packing enough metaphysical clout to control things with an iron hand -- these days: "natural necessity", "conceptual-", and/or "ontological-necessity" --, otherwise the semi-house-trained ideas that the senses sent their way might revolt, and set up their own Anarchist Collective, in which fires might actually cool, fish might break out in song, and Dialectical Marxism might become a ringing success.13
Such Concepts, Laws and Principles would have to be logical -- or indeed 'dialectical' --, if they were to exercise sufficient control over the future, and to make sure that every single idea/object was assigned to the correct general term and never stepped out of line.
As noted earlier, free-born bourgeois ideas were now clapped in chains. The 'free market' revolution in ideas was over; this rationalist takeover was a veritable conceptual Thermidor.14
One awkward question remained: How could something even as powerful as a 'Logical Principle' guarantee that future contingencies will always do what they are told? Surely such 'rational principles' are particulars themselves, if they reside in individual, bourgeois minds?14a0
Clearly, such 'Logical Principles' could only coral unruly ideas/particulars if they themselves controlled the future and were thus intelligent -- almost as if they existed in 'external' reality, too, and were those very ideas in 'self-development'. In Hegel, this doctrine sundered the distinction between Mind and Matter; control of future contingencies now became an aspect of the self-control and self-discipline of these self-developing Concepts, and/or of this evolving 'Mind'.
Indeed, these Concepts controlled the future because they controlled themselves, and with a glitzy 'new logic', a dialectical logic, to hold their hands -- a 'logic' itself based on a displaced metaphor about how an argument edges toward its conclusion. This new 'logic' laid down the Law, and everything in nature, Mind and Matter, had to bend the knee to its Will.
The World Soul in Plato was resurrected and now ran the show; the future was corralled as the supernatural self-expression of this animating spirit. In this way, the social application of rules of language became inverted and became Self-developing Idea. And it's here that the fetishisation of language -- referred to in Part One -- muscled its way in Dialectical Philosophy. Ancient and Medieval Logic had killed socially-sanctioned generality. Generality now resurfaced as part of the operation of a Cosmic Mind. But, when Hegel's method was put "back on its feet", this ancient error was not reversed, simply fetishised some more as the animating spirit of supposedly inert matter. Hegel, "back on his feet", now re-animated matter, and nature became an enchanted world again. [Harrington (1996).]14a1
Paradoxically, iron Cosmic Law was now compatible with freedom: these self-developing ideas were free because they were a law unto themselves. The good news is that the more we subject ourselves to them, the freer we became.
So, the more we are in chains the less we are in chains. You just couldn't make this stuff up!
Rousseau thought he could justify social control in this way, but only with an 'Ideal Thermidor' behind him. Similarly Hegel found his ideas controlled his thought, but only by projecting social being internally. Hence, for him, what had once been the product of the social relations between human beings (language, argument and dialectic) now controlled thought, and thought ran the world.
Feuerbach plainly got things completely the wrong way round; Hegel's 'God' is the projection of humanity inwards, not outwards. For DIMs, ideas supposedly 'reflect' the world --, but only if we allow Hegel's mystical 'logic' to take over and control the development of our thought.14a2
[DIM = Dialectical Marxism/Marxist, depending on context.]
[Which, of course, helps explain the semi-religious fervour with which the sacred dialectic is defended by all those whose brains it has colonised. On that, see here and here.]
However, this 'solution' simply creates another problem: If Autocratic Principles like these are required to control unruly material reality and our ideas about it, and knowledge is still dependent on frail human cognition, then this doctrine undermines itself. Indeed, if cosmic order can only be restored by anthropomorphising both reality and our ideas about it then that anthropomorphisation cannot fail to self-destruct.
That is because, if ordinary human beings cannot be relied on (i.e., if the material language they invented is untrustworthy, and their experience unreliable --, suspicions which originally motivated this 'theory', and hence the destruction of generality at its hands), then these 'inner human beings' (these anthropomorphised, Self-developing Ideas) and their shadowy 'internal relations' must be equally, if not more, suspect.
If normal, very material human beings cannot be trusted not to rebel, then what confidence can we place in these inner ghostly spectres?
This worry arises not just because it's difficult enough to account for the social nature of knowledge in the individual case, but because this becomes completely intractable when it is generalised to take account of the innumerable minds supposedly able to perform the same trick, and arrive at the same conclusions, from their limited experience and finite stock of ideas. [As we saw earlier.]
On this account, humanity-wide conceptual coordination like this inconceivable --, but it's far more likely that the much narrower group of amateur abstractors, or even every single Hegel scholar, is in fact dancing to a different dialectical tune, played on different instruments in each socially-atomised head, under the direction of their own individualised and quintessentially bourgeois minds.
The problem we met earlier (connected with the fragmentation brought about by the market economy) now re-surfaces here; the bourgeois psyche disunited will, it seems, never be re-united.
So, in the realm of ideas alone, it proves impossible to undo the effects this bourgeois revolution introduced into epistemology. If each of us has to abstract to our heart's content in our socially-atomised heads, then there can be no socialised knowledge, and no shared ideas.
This helps account for the last 400 years of failed theories of knowledge to add to the previous 2000.
Nevertheless, by these means the individual was allowed to strike back and walk among us, this time disguised as a Dialectical Guru -- Hegel himself --, for only he (and his DM-descendants) were 'qualified' to interpret the development of thought, and thus the course of history for the benefit of the rest of benighted humanity. Dialectical Philosophers were thus turned into Dialectical Prophets, substitutionist ideology their gospel.14a
Nevertheless, given this approach to knowledge, no matter how robust the metaphysical coercion operating inside each individual brain, coordinated knowledge across a whole population would be nigh on miraculous --, unless it's imposed on all by the will of the Glorious Leader, the Great Teacher. For not only would each lone abstractor not have access to the ideas of any other, they would have no way of checking whether or not they were even prodding their ideas in the same direction, and in the same way as anyone else.
In this free market in ideas, Adam Smith's invisible hand cannot leave so much as a smudged fingerprint. On the contrary, a very visible mailed fist, belonging to the Dialectical Magus (sometimes in the shape of Gerry Healy -- at others, that of Mao -- or even the Great One Himself, Stalin), is required to impose epistemological order.
However, the fact that inter-subjective agreement actually takes place countless times everyday in ordinary life suggests that this fanciful neo-bourgeois picture is wildly off centre. Indeed, when the daily requirements imposed by the material world on all socially-active agents are factored in, this myth falls apart faster than a WMD dossier.
This is not just because it is highly unlikely that each mind would form the same general idea of the same objects and processes from its disparate but limited stock of data -- which is problematic enough in itself in view of the fact that no two people share exactly the same experiences or draw the same conclusions from them. It's because even the appropriation of the word "same" reproduces identical difficulties (no pun intended) by involving an idea that looks suspiciously general in itself. If no two minds can check another's 'similarities'-- howsoever dialectically orthodox they are -- then there is no way that a social process could even begin if it is based on abstraction. Questions would naturally arise as to whether the 'same' ideas of anything (abstract, particular, concrete, general, or even dialectical) had actually taken root in disparate dialectical minds -- and these worries would persist until it had been established whether or not each enquirer had the 'same' ideas about the word "same", let alone about anything else.
And how on earth might that be achieved, for goodness sake?
Worse still: given the 'dialectical' view of identity, this problem cannot even be stated, let alone solved. The peremptory rejection of the LOI returns now to haunt DM-epistemology; by confusing a logical issue with an epistemological red-herring, the quest for superior 'dialectical' knowledge is trapped forever in a solipsistic dungeon.
[LOI = Law of Identity.]
Once more, this is because it has yet to be explained how any two dialectically-distracted minds could frame the same general or particular ideas about anything -- even before the dialectical bandwagon begins to roll --, or how a check could be made that either of them had accomplished this correctly or not. And this is not so much because none of us has access to the minds of any other abstractor, but because it has yet to be established whether anyone even understands the word "correct" in the same way!15
Once more: how on earth might that be accomplished (correctly)?
Furthermore, it's no less unclear how even this minimal worry (about the generality of general ideas) may be communicated without making use of the very same notions that originally required explanation; this is, generality and the application of the LOI as a rule of language.16
Even more problematic still: how might it be ascertained whether or not the same ideas about anything (whether they be abstract, concrete, general, or particular) had been inherited correctly from former generations of pioneer abstractors? Without access to a time machine, mind probes -- and a prior grasp of the very things they had supposedly bequeathed to us (i.e., general ideas, again) -- no one would be in a position to determine the accuracy of a single 'concept' or 'dialectical principle' belonging to this supposedly common inheritance.
But, on this account, no start could be made to the building of knowledge. Not only would this intentional edifice have no foundation, no two prospective labourers would have the same plot of land to work on, the same plan to guide them, the same materials to factor in -- or even the remotest idea about what could count as the same brick. [Except, of course, by sheer coincidence; but even then, they would be unable to determine any similarity (plainly, since they'd need general ideas to do this, and the word "same" frequents no other company.]
Again, this is also because (to change the image) dialecticians unwisely threw their hand in before the cards were dealt -- for they are the ones who deny that anything could be exactly the same as anything else (except in the most tenuous and abstract of senses).
This means that, based on the strictures dialecticians place on the material application of the LOI, no two people could have the same general (or particular) idea about anything -- ever. Nor could they even have the same idea about approximate identity (so that they could conclude that their ideas only roughly coincided with those of anyone else; if the dread word "same" cannot be the same in two minds, the phrase "approximately the same" stands no chance), nor would anyone even have a handle on partial or total disagreement -- or about anything else inside or outside the mind -- no matter how dialectically-sound its derivation might otherwise seem.
Worse still, no dialectician would or could have the same (or approximately the same) general (or particular) idea as he or she once entertained about anything in the past, so that they could say even of their own opinions that they were so much as approximately stable from moment to moment.
In that case, of course, the process of abstraction itself can't even get started!
It should hardly need pointing out, abstraction cannot make a start where there is nothing common to abstract, or no shared concepts to work with from moment to moment, or no 'law of cognition' that remains the same from second to second, or between each isolated dialectical skull and the next one.16a
In this way, the theory of abstraction has not only destroyed each and every dialectical proposition (this was argued in detail in Part One of this Essay), the entire project strangled itself before birth (by acceding to the bourgeois idea that we all abstract away in the privacy of our heads) -- just as it helps mangle the thought of anyone foolish enough to give it so much as the time of day.
Of course, that is why an earlier claim was made (again, at the end of Part One) that the assumed activities of heroic ancestral abstractors can't have taken place, since no sense can be made of the possibility that they did.
In that case, this 'theory' does not even so much as make the back of the queue for the starting grid.
The above points might be regarded by some as a grossly unfair misrepresentation of DM. As TAR notes:
"…[A]ll science 'deductively anticipates' developments –- what else is an hypothesis tested by experimentation?" [Rees (1998), p.131.]
This appears to contradict the claim made above that DM-epistemology cannot cope with future contingencies. If scientists actually use abstractions -- and legitimately so -- why can't DM-theorists do the same? And why can't they project their ideas into the future in like manner (especially if these are subject to constant empirical check)? Alas for Ms Lichtenstein, successful practice refutes her negative conclusions.
Or so it could be claimed.
Quite apart from the fact that practice has in fact delivered the opposite conclusion (on that see Essay Ten Part One) it's worth pointing out that based on DM's own principles this neat picture will only work if reality itself is Ideal. That is because, even if the author of TAR were correct that science "'deductively anticipates…' developments", it could only do so if reality already had an underlying logical structure, and nature was 'externalised thought', no different in form from that which is posited by Objective Idealism. [Why this is so seems pretty obvious (but reasons for concluding this were given at the beginning of Part One of this Essay); this topic will be examined in more detail in Essay Twelve (summary here).]
As Part One showed, the motivation to try to extrapolate from finite body of 'partial' knowledge to infinitary conclusions was originally prompted by an ideologically-motivated, but syntactically inept interpretation of general words as the names of abstract particulars. To compound this error, these abstractions were then projected back onto a 'shadow-reality' anterior to experience (that supposedly underpinned the material world in an as-yet-unexplained manner), which was more real that the universe we see around us.
However, as far as dialecticians are concerned, their buying into this traditional approach to knowledge completely compromised DM-epistemology, since these moves are based on a limited set of linguistic malapropisms (and only that), not on evidence derived from the sciences.
Even worse still: as Part One also showed, this move destroys the capacity language has for expressing anything whatsoever -- particular or general.
Indeed, quite apart from the fatal consequences noted above, if general ideas were simply the names of abstract particulars, no general conclusions could be drawn from them -- and certainly not by means of another set of abstractions that only replicates the very same error.17
Reality: Abstract, Concrete -- Or Both?
The second difficulty (mentioned earlier) is in fact connected with the first, but has somewhat different implications. As we have just seen, traditional solutions to the 'problem' of Universals only appeared to succeed because they anthropomorphised the brain and/or its ideas --, or, alternatively, they fetishised language (so that the products of social interaction were reified into the real relations between things, or as those things themselves).
As we have also seen, in order to explain the operation of the mind, Empiricists found that they had to postulate the existence of 'intelligent ideas', which were either spontaneously gregarious, or were somehow capable of obeying rules intelligently as they went about their lawful business.
On the other hand, Rationalists held that apparently contingent events in the outside world could not account for the ideas we had of them. In fact, as they saw things, the reverse was the case: it was the nature -- or later the development -- of our ideas/minds that explained the 'outer' world, which in the end, of course, implied that reality was fundamentally Ideal. All this is reasonably obvious. The next bit isn't.
On the basis of this world-view, theorists constructed (or 'discovered') what they took to be nature's "laws", but they did not suppose their theories were true merely because nature was law-governed. On the contrary, many held that the connection was much tighter than this; they could read these 'laws' into nature because the mind was structured in a particular way. The very possibility of experience meant the world had to be a certain way.18 This put human cognition back at the centre of the meaning universe, and what had mean to be a 'Copernican Revolution' in Philosophy turned out to be its opposite, a Ptolemaic realignment.
If indeed the world was a reflection of 'God's Mind' -- and the human mind was in turn a pale reflection of the latter --, the 'inter-reflection' between mind and world, world and mind, guaranteed that thought left to its own devices was able to penetrate below the surface of 'appearances' into to the heart of 'Being' itself, uncovering its hidden 'essences'. General laws seemed to be either the result of the self-directed concepts which accurately captured or mirrored nature's inner secrets, or their constitutive cause.
As Hermetic Philosophers had surmised, the Microcosm of the human mind reflected the Macrocosm of 'God's' creation because both were Mind, or the product of it. Union with 'God' was thus one with union with Nature, which helps explain the origin of what we are told is the main problematic of German Idealism: Subject-Object Identity. In Hegel's work, this union, between the 'Knower and the Known', was guaranteed by the application of just enough Divine Logic; the mystical Rosicrucian wedding was finally engineered.18a
Empiricist theories arrived at analogous conclusions but from a different direction, albeit sometimes expressed atheistically.19
Either way -- as Hegel himself pointed out -- every branch of traditional Philosophy sooner or later finds its way back to the Ideal home from whence it sprang.20
Nevertheless, serious problems associated with this approach to knowledge simply re-surfaced in DM, only in a more acute form. Dialecticians claim that their system somehow reverses the above process of cognition (albeit after its "mystical shell" has been removed, leaving only the "rational kernel") in order to neutralise its Idealist implications. They declare that their theory has been rotated through 180 degrees to stand on its own two materialist legs -- hardly noticing that the Ideal backside is now where the materialist head used to be, and vice versa.
At least that explains all the hot air.
["Arse over tit", as we say up North.]
However, psycho-logical machinery like this was not designed to operate in reverse; an Ideal forward gear always seems to reassert itself.
As Essay Two has shown, dialecticians proceed as if it is quite natural -- nay, it's hardly worth mentioning -- to extrapolate from thoughts, words or concepts to necessary truths about the world. Not only do they proceed as if they think that their laws and a priori theses are applicable to all of reality for all of time, but in order to make them appear to work this way, they have to talk like this.
And now we can see why; it comes with the territory. The Dialectical Macrocosm meshes with the Dialectical Microcosm because this entire world-view was inherited (in a modified form) from Aristocratic Greek thinkers who designed it to work this way. These ruling-ideas rule because, to DM-fans, they seem so natural and quintessentially 'philosophical'.20a
If abstractions provide the glue that binds knowledge together (or if it allows it even to be formed, as Lenin argued), what else could they imply about nature except that it is just one Big Idea?
Or, more accurately: what else could this imply but that Hegel Junior (DM) looks just like his dad?
"Logical concepts are subjective so long as they remain 'abstract,' in their abstract form, but at the same time they express the Thing-in-themselves. Nature is both concrete and abstract, both phenomenon and essence, both moment and relation." [Lenin (1961), p.208. Italic emphases in the original.]
"Thought proceeding from the concrete to the abstract -- provided it is correct (NB)… -- does not get away from the truth but comes closer to it. The abstraction of matter, the law of nature, the abstraction of value, etc., in short all scientific (correct, serious, not absurd) abstractions reflect nature more deeply, truly and completely." [Ibid., p.171. Italic emphases in the original.]
Perhaps we can now understand why Lenin argued this way: DM is the Ideal offspring of an Ideal Family. And this family tree stretches right back into the mists of ruling-class time.
Of course, dialecticians pretend that these abstractions have been derived from the world (or from some sort of 'law of cognition') and tested in practice, but the above considerations cast serious doubt on the accuracy of that claim.
Presently, these doubts will mature quite alarmingly.
Collective Error Over General Terms
Nominalism excepted, legendary accounts of the origins of abstract general ideas all shared the belief that the mind was somehow capable of ascending from particulars (given in experience) to the general (not so given) -- or sometimes the other way round, unifying particulars under an 'objective law' --, as it progressively disregarded their unique ("accidental", "inessential") features, or as it looked for wider connections in order to uncover the 'essences' that supposedly lay behind 'appearances'.21
That alone should have made erstwhile materialists pause for more than just a thought; what on earth could be so materialist about a theory that has to withdraw from the material into the Ideal in such an irresponsible manner?
The pay-off, so we have been led to believe, is the greater explanatory power (etc.) this approach supposedly brings in its train; but if this is gained at the expense of populating the world with nearly as many abstractions as there are material bodies, and which turn out to be more real than material bodies themselves (and, as a consequence, dialecticians regard matter itself as an abstraction!), one wonders what sort of victory has been won over Idealism.
[Of the same order, perhaps, as that of the Church over 'sin'? Or, that of Social Democracy over Capitalism?]
In fact, the reverse appears to be far more likely. Indeed, this whole approach looks for all the world to be based on the belief that material reality is insufficient of itself, inadequate and not fully real, and that nature requires the background operation of Ideal principles to make it work. For dialectical materialists, matter (would you believe!) seems to be far too crude or lifeless to do anything on its own -- even if it is all that nature has on offer. Apparently, it needs a 'Logic' to make it tick.
Well, we all know which religion is based on the Logos.
[Answer: the vast majority...]
And that explains why Lenin could declare that he preferred intelligent Idealism to "crude materialism".22
By nailing their colours to this ruling-class masthead, dialecticians have placed themselves on the side of the Gods.23
Abstractionism – Bury It, Or Praise It?
Unfortunately, unlike Capitalism, Abstractionism has attracted few effective gravediggers. Those that it has managed to attract have proved to be even less successful in the overthrow of the latter than workers have been the former. This is largely because these erstwhile undertakers were (and are) more often content simply to point out the psychological impossibility of the entire abstractionist process rather than reveal its logical flaws and ideological motivation. So, these "ruling ideas" live on to rule another day -- and another dialectician.
More recently, however, abstractionism has been subjected to a series of destructive critiques, even though this ancient theory still lumbers on. This in turn is partly because many of those who avowedly came to bury it -- and unlike Mark Antony -- wind up praising it by emulating it. In so doing they have helped breathe new life into this cadaver by inventing brand new, glitzy 'essentialist' theories of their own.24
Public Criteria Vs Private Gain
In the event, as seems obvious, an ability to talk about, say, dogs depends on a prior grasp (in use) of the relevant general terms found in language. This fact does not need an explanation -- nor could one be provided that did not also employ the very things that required explaining in the first place, i.e., general words.25
If the above observations possess one advantage, it's that of re-directing attention away from hidden, inner processes and private, individualised abilities -- allegedly possessed by 'expert lone abstractors' -- toward socially-acquired and publicly checkable skills and abilities in any endeavour to understand the use of language, generality and socially-constituted knowledge.
Naturally, only non-materialists will think to complain at this point.
Which is why emphasis has been placed in these Essays on our capacity to use ordinary language in a public domain. This is also why serious questions have been raised about the ability we are all supposed to possess of being able to squeeze abstract epistemological juice out of desiccated discourse, in the 'privacy of our heads'.
In contrast once more, the approach adopted here means that the scientific aspects of human cognition are open to view, subject to public scrutiny -- unlike the mysterious inner rituals that underlie the process of abstraction, a process, it's worth recalling, that fails to deliver even what was advertised for it.26
Particular Problems With DM-Generality
It has been argued at length above, and in Part One, that instead of beginning with the general as a way of advancing to knowledge of the particular, the DM-'process' of abstraction in fact turns general words into the names of abstract particulars, which then, unsurprisingly, proceeds to go nowhere with them. This not only distorts the way language functions -- destroying the capacity it has for saying anything at all --, it demolishes the dialectical circuit before it can even be tested in practice.
The remainder of this Part of Essay Three will be aimed at widening, and then providing further substantiation for, these allegations.
The Underlying 'Essence' Of 'Being'
A cursory reading of earlier sections might prompt the idea that they ignore the fact that scientists actually use the method of abstraction -- and have done so for centuries -- in their search for knowledge. According to this widely held belief, they do this in order to discover -- or 'uncover' -- the underlying "objective" nature of reality.
[The first part of this counter-claim was examined in Note 24; both will be examined in detail in Essay Thirteen Part Two, to be published in 2012.]
However, this objection invites consideration of two further sets of ideas that DM-theorists have inherited from traditional Metaphysics: (1) The distinction between "appearance" and "reality", and (2) The difference between "essence" and "accident".
Once again, we see that dialecticians have (naively) swallowed these ancient Aristocratic distinctions, having meekly accepted the class-motivated idea that 'appearances' are not 'fully real', and that 'abstraction' is able to penetrate the outer 'shell' of the former in order to gain access to the underlying 'rational order' of the latter.
[This is done, so we are told, so that we might comprehend 'appearances' (or objects and processes) more fully and scientifically. Ironically, we will soon see that this is the opposite of what happens.]
In this connection TAR makes the following series of points:
"The important thing about a Marxist understanding of the distinction between the appearance of things and their essence is twofold: 1) by delving beneath the mass of surface phenomena, it is possible to see the essential relations governing historical change -– thus beneath the appearance of a free and fair market transaction it is possible to see the exploitative relations of class society, but, 2) this does not mean that surface appearances can simply be dismissed as ephemeral events of no consequence. In revealing the essential relations in society, it is also possible to explain more fully than before why they appear in a form different to their real nature. To explain, for instance, why it is that the exploitative class relations at the point of production appear as the exchange of 'a fair day's work for a fair day's pay' in the polished surface of the labour market." [Rees (1998), p.187. Quotation marks altered to conform to the conventions adopted here.]
But, according to Rees, a commitment to scientific knowledge also involves the belief that:
"There is a deeper reality, but it must be able to account for the contradiction between it and the way it appears." [Ibid., p.188.]
And this is where abstraction enters the picture:
"[K]nowledge requires an active process of abstraction capable of discriminating between essence and appearance." [Ibid., p.189.]
However, abstraction cannot simply function by itself:
"[A]bstraction can be a method of seeing reality more clearly…[but] consciousness must issue in practical activity, which will furnish the proof of whether or not our conceptions of the world are accurate….
"In conscious activity, human beings overcome the abstractness of thought by integrating it with concrete, immediate reality in all its complexity -– this is the moment when we see whether thought really does assume an objective form, whether it really can create the world, or whether it has mistaken the nature of reality and is therefore unable to enter the historical chain as an objective force which, in the case of the class struggle, seizes the masses….
"[F]or Lenin practice overcomes the distinction between subjective and objective and the gap between essence and appearance." [Ibid., pp.190-91.]
There are several points here that are worth examining, but for present purposes attention will be confined to the supposed contradiction between "appearance" and an allegedly "deeper reality" in the natural world.
["Social contradictions" will be examined in Essay Eight Parts Two and Three.]
Does Reality Contradict Appearances?
Contradictions Supposedly Generated By Science
Despite the fact that dialecticians assert that appearance and reality (or, 'essence' and 'appearance') contradict each other, they seldom tell us what they mean by this, nor do they illustrate this alleged clash with examples drawn from the natural world. [Those that supposedly occur in the social sphere will be examined presently.] And even if they were to do this, it's still not easy to see what in general the putative contradiction between 'appearance' and 'reality' is supposed to be.26a
However, if we examine a volunteered example we might be able to make sense of the wider claim that there is a clash of sorts between the way things appear and the truths that scientists and/or Philosophers supposedly uncover. This example has been deliberately chosen both for its triteness and its familiarity. Something more arcane would have obscured the issues involved. Different examples will be considered as the argument unfolds, but mainly in other Essays posted at this site.
This "volunteered example" concerns the apparent incongruity that exists between the way that sticks look bent, and the fact that they do not really bend, when they are partially immersed in water. Of course, it could be objected that this example does not illustrate a process in nature, and so it's not relevant. However, it's relatively easy to adapt it so that this objection itself becomes irrelevant, as we will also see.
[Further examples of this alleged incongruity can be altered in like manner, but I will refrain from doing this here for obvious reasons. Hence, they should be read in the same way to prevent this section descending into obscure, legalistic pedantry.]
Nevertheless, this illusion could be expressed as follows:
R1: This stick appears bent in water.
R2: It's not the case that this stick appears bent in water.27
R1a: This stick appears to bend when immersed in water.
R2a: It's not the case that this stick appears to bend when immersed in water.
R1 and R2, and R1a and R2b, form apparently contradictory pairs, but this type of incongruity is clearly not of the sort to which Rees and other dialecticians are alluding -- the alleged contradiction between appearance and reality. That is, R1 and R2 are plainly both about appearances only, hence, not about the alleged clash between appearance and reality.
Perhaps then, the following will work?
R3: This stick bends when put in water.
R4: It's not the case that this stick bends when put in water.
Again, these two seem to be contradictory, but, unfortunately, they are not what Rees and other dialecticians have in mind either since they fail to contrast appearance with reality. R3 and R4 merely express two contradictory propositions relating to possible states of affairs; neither is about appearances
However, the following pair of sentences does attempt to contrast appearance and reality:
R5: This stick appears bent in water.
R6: It's not the case that this stick is bent in water.28
The problem with these two is that they are not contradictories, since they can be (and are) both true at once, and they can both be false at once; there appears to be no logical connection between them. The truth of one does not imply the falsehood of the other, nor vice versa.
It could be objected to this that the fact that sticks appear to bend in water prompts the naïve belief that they do just that, which contradicts the fact that they do not really bend when partially immersed. This clash could lead to a rejection of this unscientific belief, as indeed it does. In that sense, therefore, it could be argued that reality does indeed contradict appearances.
But, does all this make it false to say that sticks look bent in water? Clearly not. And yet if these two sentences were contradictory (recall, no two contradictory propositions can be true together), and given that R6 is true alongside R5, it would be false to say that they are contradictory.29
In connection with this it is also worth recalling that, according to physical theory, light rays are deflected as they pass between the air and water, creating the 'illusion' of bent sticks. However, if sticks did not really look bent in water (or if it were false to say that they appeared to bend when immersed) this would refute the scientific belief that light rays themselves deviate upon entering or leaving the relevant media. Tinker around with such beliefs too much and far more serious problems would arise that would threaten to undermine at least this part of Physics.
So, even in this sense, appearances are not contradicted by reality -– far from it, they play an essential part in the verification of scientific theory. Hence, the scientific truth that light deviates when passing between media is confirmed by the appearance recorded in R5!
Again, it could be objected that this is an entirely specious response. The fact is that scientific knowledge is inconsistent with the belief that sticks bend in water. No amount of re-interpretation can minimise the significance of this.
However, that would have been an effective rebuttal if (1) The argument above were about beliefs and not about appearances, and if (2) It could be shown that anyone actually believed (or has ever believed) that sticks bend in water -- since this version of that counter-response specifically mentioned what might plausibly be believed by naïve observers. Undeniably, such a belief would be incompatible with what we know to be true, but the DM-claim is that appearances contradict reality. It says nothing about beliefs doing this.
Indeed, the point made above is that, far from reality contradicting appearances, scientists themselves need appearances to be correct (to confirm such things as Snell's Law), and hence they have to take note of 'seemingly' bent sticks. Clearly, that is because scientists have to look at things, and if they saw sticks in water that did not appear to bend when immersed they would either question whether the liquid concerned was indeed water or they would wonder if they were hallucinating.
Hence, the above objection only seems to work by confusing appearances with beliefs. Now, it is certainly not being questioned here whether propositions drawn from science contradict certain beliefs about the world and what it contains. But, beliefs are not the same as appearances.
It could be argued that the argument above is inconsistent, for while it alleges that there can be no contradiction between appearances and reality there can be and are contradictions between scientific propositions and certain beliefs.
So, on the one hand, while these are contradictory:
B1: p.
B2: NN believes that not p,
on the other, these aren't:
B3: p.
B4: It appears to NN that not p.
How can the former be deemed contradictory while the latter aren't?
Of course, the wording of my earlier claim was specifically this:
B5: It is certainly not being questioned here whether propositions drawn from science contradict certain beliefs about the world and what it contains. But, beliefs are not the same as appearances.
Now while "not p" certainly is the contradictory of "p", "p" itself is not the contradictory of the back end of B4, i.e., "to NN that not p". If B2 were instead:
B6: It believes to NN that not p
a case might be made against me, but it wasn't, and so it can't. In that case, B1/B2 and B3/B4 are not at all analogous.
It could further responded that if we re-word the above, they might still be contradictory; perhaps as follows?
B7: p.
B8: NN has a belief that not p.
B9: p.
B10: NN has an appearance that not p.
In response to this I will merely note that these two sets of sentences can only be made to appear to contradict one another (irony intended) by a crass misuse of language (in B10). People can no more have appearances than they can have seemings or lookings. Of course, if we had sentences in language like this (to mirror ones like B11a):
B11: It believes to me that not p,
B11a: It appears to me that not p,
then we might be able to make this response work, but we do not -- and it's not difficult to see why. We form our beliefs based on all manner of contingencies, but appearances are things we undergo like it or not -- we do not form them. Moreover, we use sentence like "NN believes that p" , but not "NN appears that p". So, as noted above, appearances are not beliefs.
Nevertheless, it could still be objected that while sticks might appear to bend in water, the fact is that they do not actually do so. In that sense, subjective appearance is contradicted by objective fact.
However, this latest objection itself labours under several misconceptions:
(1) First, appearances are part of reality. No one supposes, surely, that appearances are fictional or that they have been invented, or that they only exist 'in heaven'. It's not as if our ancestors made this fable up and several millennia later we have finally rumbled to it. In that case, appearances are just as 'real' as unbent sticks are.
Moreover, and worse, since neither appearances nor reality are propositional, no contradiction could be possible between them.29a
It could be objected that the issue in hand is the contradiction between essence and appearance not that between appearance and reality, which is an invention of the present Essay.
But, even if the term "essence" itself possessed a clear meaning, it's difficult to see how there could be such a contradiction, not unless appearances and essences were propositional. Hegelians might be able to get away with that idea (but as far as I know they haven't sought to do so yet), since, for them, everything is Ideal; but materialists can't.
Of course, that comment itself depends on a view of contradictions I do not expect dialecticians to accept, but until they tell us what they do mean by this word, little progress can be made. After all, since we have only been waiting for 200 years to be informed what dialecticians actually mean by "contradiction", it would display a little too much impatience on my part perhaps to expect them to produce one in the next generation or so.
[This topic is discussed in more detail in Essays Four, Five, Eight Parts One, Two and Three, and Eleven Part One.]
Moreover, it's worth recalling that the example under discussion features a stick that looks bent in water. In that case, unless dialecticians have a theory about the 'essence' of sticks that differs from their notion of real sticks, this objection must fail. And Novack it was who argued that:
"...A thing is truly real if it is necessary, if its appearance truly corresponds to its essence.... Materialists...locate the roots of necessity in the objective world, in the material conditions and conflicting forces which create, sustain and destroy all things. But, from the purely logical standpoint, both schools of philosophy [i.e., Idealism and Materialism -- RL] agree in connecting reality with necessity.
"Something acquires reality because the necessary conditions for its production and reproduction are objectively present and operative. It becomes more or less real in accordance with the changes in the external and internal circumstances of its development. It remains truly real only so long and insofar as it is necessary under the given conditions. Then, as conditions change, it loses its necessity and its reality and dissolves into mere appearance." [Novack (1971), p.86.]29b
Which more or less settles things; appearances are as much a part of reality as essences are, if they coincide. [How they manage do this in the case of bent sticks, I will leave those who like this of this way of talking to fathom out for themselves.]
(2) Secondly, the claim that it is merely a 'subjective' experience that sticks appear to bend in water is itself in error. Not only does everyone see the same appearance (i.e., bending sticks) -– which means it cannot be subjective (or only one person would be able to see it) -–, but this apparent bending of sticks forms a basis for the 'objective' fact that confirms the scientific belief that light changes its path when passing between media. If the appearance of bending sticks were merely subjective, what should we make of the idea that light alters its course -– is that subjective too? Is the 'objectivity' of science based on such weak 'subjectivist' foundations?
Again, exception might be taken to the claim that appearances are "objective", since most philosophers and scientists agree that they are subjective. Since objectivity relates to something called "observer independence", appearances must be subjective -- or so it could be argued.
First of all, I'm not advancing any such claim, since I reject the use of metaphysical language like this. It's merely being employed here to assist in its own demise. Hence the frequent use of 'scare' quotes.
Secondly, if appearances are subjective then, because the fact that philosophers and scientists believe that appearances are subjective is also an appearance, it too must be subjective -- in that it's not "observer independent", either. In fact, as should seem plain, no observation made by scientists or philosophers could ever be "observer independent", and thus "objective".
In fact, if 'objectivity' is understood to be "observer-", or "mind-independent", then it would be impossible to form an 'objective' opinion of anything -- let alone an opinion about subjectivity' -– that is, while we irresponsibly possess minds and foolishly go about the place observing things.
Indeed, as we shall soon see, any attempt to classify appearances as 'subjective' (hence not fully 'real') would fatally undermine not only science, but the status of the opinions of anyone who holds that rash belief itself. So, if 'objectivity' is defined as "observer-independence" etc., then plainly the notion that light bends when it moves between media (and every other belief we have) cannot be 'objective'. As seems undeniable, the truth of this and every other scientific idea depends on centuries of observation (and no little human thought), as much as it depends on the current beliefs of human beings. Exactly how the former can be held to be independent of the latter is a mystery few bother to explain. Eliminate the 'subjective' element from science -- if that is what it is -- and everything we believe to be 'objective' must go with it, for if science dealt only with "observer-independent" realities we would be unable to form any 'objective' beliefs.
Of course, all this will be music to dialecticians' ears, since they already accept the dialectical interplay between the 'objective' and the 'subjective':
"Logical concepts are subjective so long as they remain 'abstract,' in their abstract form, but at the same time they express the Thing-in-themselves. Nature is both concrete and abstract, both phenomenon and essence, both moment and relation. Human concepts are subjective in their abstractness, separateness, but objective as a whole, in the process, in the sum-total, in the tendency, in the source." [Lenin (1961), p.208. Italic emphases in the original.]
In that case, we must abandon the idea that "objective" means "mind-independent". [More on 'objectivity' here.]
However, if dialecticians are prepared to do that, then much of their epistemology will follow it out the window, for, according to this latest turn of events, it seems that nature is 'objective' only if we know about it, and then only in certain ways!
It could be objected here (no pun intended) that this misconstrues Hegel's notion of objectivity; indeed, it confuses it with a much looser modern concept. Hegel drew many of his ideas from Kant's Critical Philosophy, and adapted them accordingly. In fact, his ideas on this score cannot be separated from his system as a whole. However, since that will be examined in Essay Twelve Parts Five and Six, no more will be said about it here.
However, Dialectical Marxists surely cannot accept Hegel's notion of objectivity, since it would transform them into Objective Idealists. So, until we are informed exactly what dialecticians mean when they say the sort of obscure things about 'objectivity' that Lenin does, little more can be done with it.
Nevertheless, it could be argued that an objective view of nature is one which attempts to picture it as it must be (or as it must have been) without observers, or as it would be if there were no minds -– that is, it aims to depict reality as it is in-itself, in its ever-changing essence.
Of course, this take on 'objectivity' would undermine what Lenin has just said, since "nature in-itself" does not mean "nature-as-observed-by-some-mind-or-other".
Even so, the use of the world "picture" above is a give-away. Pictures are only such because of the observers who view them. Eliminate the latter aspect of science and its 'picturing' role must go with it. To be sure, the physical object that constitutes a picture (the canvas, the frame, the paint, and so on) will not vanish if humanity and all sentient life perishes, but the verb "to picture" is for us transitive; without our input, no picturing could take place. The Moon, for example, is not a picture for, or of, anything.
That is, of course, why we find 'ideal observers' -- and/or the presence of terms that imply that actual observers exists (somewhere) to view events (even if only as part of a 'thought-experiment') -- cropping up all over the place in such quasi-'objectivist' accounts of nature. On that basis, the term "objective" would mean something like "observer-, but not ideal observer-independent". In other words, science would be 'objective' only if we deliberately forgot it was meant to be observer-independent.
Again, it could be argued that the objectivity of science is based on the following sort of counterfactual:
R7: Even if there were no observers, light would still bend as it passed between media.
Naturally, sentences like R7 will not be controverted here (although it's debatable whether the word "objectivity" is much help here), but it's worth pointing out that R7 is not relevant to the doctrine presently being challenged, for if there were no observers then appearances could not contradict reality -- for, in that case, there'd plainly be no 'appearances' to conflict with anything, and, indeed, no one to do the 'contradicting'.
So, 'objectively' speaking (to adopt this confused mode of expression for the moment) appearances cannot contradict "things-in-themselves", if they are counterfactually depicted this way.
It might still be felt that there must be a contradiction between 'commonsense' -- or ordinary language -- and scientific knowledge if the latter is to make any progress. We no longer believe many things that once seemed obvious to 'commonsense', which, of course, means that most of our former erroneous ideas must have been either eradicated or corrected by science.
However, this latest attempt to rescue the claim that reality contradicts appearances labours under another confusion, one that holds that 'commonsense' and ordinary language are somehow the same. They are not.
[This is a topic that is examined in greater detail in Essay Twelve (however, some of this material has been posted here temporarily). There it will become apparent that since no one seems to have a clear idea what the term "commonsense" means (in its philosophical sense, that is), it's difficult to make much of this objection.]
It's also worth pointing out here that long before the scientific study of nature began, human beings were well aware of the fact that sticks do not bend in water. It hardly took a Newton or a Galileo to uncover that amazing fact. This is not to say that earlier generations were able to explain this phenomenon, but that fact is not relevant to the topic in hand.
[Several of the other alleged 'corrections' scientific advance has made to 'commonsense' are examined below, and again in other Essays posted at this site.]
As we have just seen, this entire topic revolves around the use of two obscure terms-of-art: "objective" and "subjective". Neither of these has a clear meaning or a fixed use -- even among those who think they know what they mean. Of course, this plainly implies that the distinction between these two words must be 'subjective' itself -- again, if we must accept this obscure way of talking.
Be this as it may, if the thesis that reality contradicts appearances really does depend on this obscure pair of words, then it would be impossible to assess until these terms have been given a clear sense -- and, incidentally one that does not itself depend on a single instance of human/observer-motivated input --, for that would render it subjective, too.
['Objectivity' and 'subjectivity' are examined in more detail in Essay Thirteen Part One.]
Finally, as noted above, this entire issue reduces this discussion to a consideration of contradictory beliefs -– those engendered in us by scientific advance, as opposed to those derived from 'commonsense'. If this is all it means then this too will not be controverted here, for there is nothing in the least bit puzzling about contradictory beliefs. Indeed, they are as common as mud.30
The 'Contradiction' Between Science And 'Commonsense'
In view of the above, perhaps we should consider examples that illustrate the alleged conflict between science and 'commonsense' (and those that many think have actually taken place), in order to try to understand what the supposed DM-clash between 'appearance' and 'reality' is meant to be. To that end, consider the following:
R8: The Sun appears to rise each morning.
R9: It's not the case that the Sun appears to rise each morning.
R10: It's not the case that the Sun rises each morning.
Again, while R8 and R9 might look contradictory they do not in fact illustrate the sort of conflict we seek since they are both about appearances again. And there is no obvious logical connection between R10 and either of R8 and R9. That is because the truth or falsehood of R10 has nothing to do with the truth or falsehood of R8 and R9, nor vice versa. In fact, if the earth were stationary, and the Sun moved, things would appear no different than if the reverse were true. And we would surely not conclude that R10 had been contradicted if sunrise could not be seen one morning because it was foggy, say; that is, if it did not appear to rise. Nor would R8 become false if, in the future, scientists changed their minds about the truth of R10.31
Clearly, this recurring problem is the result of a difficulty that John Rees and every other dialectician seem to have overlooked: it's not possible to form a contradiction by concatenating a proposition that expresses matters of fact with one that reports appearances, as we saw above.
In short, the following schematic sentences:
R11: It appears to be the case that p.
R12: It is not the case that p.
cannot form a contradictory pair when interpreted in the manner specified, and then conjoined.
Moreover, unless we subscribe to the view that facts and appearances are intelligent and/or belligerent -– that is, that they are capable of picking arguments with one another -- it would make no sense to suppose that appearances could literally contradict (i.e., "gainsay") true propositions. Not only are appearances non-linguistic and non-sentient, but as far as propositions and appearances are concerned, they do not seem to oppose each other in any obvious way. They do not turn into one another (which is something that dialectical opposites are supposed to do, so we are told), nor do they cause each other to change. So, as such, this alleged contradiction makes little sense even in DM-terms.
Furthermore, the appearance of the Sun is the same today (with respect to sunrise, at least) as it was thousands of years ago. To be sure, we might interpret things differently today, but that does not affect how things still appear. In that case, a DM-'contradiction' here must be figurative, at best -- or perhaps it's merely terminological.
Nevertheless, it could be argued that there are aspects of scientific knowledge that do in fact contradict appearances, despite what has been argued here. It's surely true that those who relied on 'commonsense' at one time imagined that the earth was stationary, whereas scientists now know that our planet moves. Hence, the following pair of propositions could illustrate the intended contradiction:
R13: The earth moves.
R14: It is not the case that the earth moves.
These certainly contradict one another, but even this pair is not what we are looking for, since neither of them is about appearances.
Moreover, Rees seems to be interested in contradictory pairs where both halves are true, those involving seemingly 'correct' appearances contradicted by genuinely 'objective' underlying realities -– otherwise the alleged superiority of DL over FL would be illusory. That is because, as already noted, DM-style contradictions must both be true at once (or, they must both 'exist' at once, to use the jargon), unlike their less contentious FL-cousins. Unfortunately, however, R14 is false.32
This means that we still do not have a DM-'contradiction', even in this relatively clear case. Nor are we ever likely to get one --, and that is for the reasons stated above.
Even if a case could be made out to show that scientific propositions contradicted indicative sentences expressing appearances, that still would not achieve all that dialecticians require of them. That is because (as noted in Essay Five) propositions that might look contradictory -- and which are both held to be true -– would normally be disambiguated or they would be given a background against which they might be understood, which would resolve the apparent contradiction.
This latest assertion is no mere 'bourgeois' prejudice or diktat. Consider the following examples, which are analogous to the previous pair:
R15: The strikers moved.
R16: It is not the case that the strikers moved.
This pair certainly looks contradictory (especially if both relate to the same strikers at the same moment, and thus both are held true) -- but that would cease to be the case once it was discovered that the said strikers were sat on a train that was travelling at 80 miles per hour. On the train, these militants could be sat perfectly still, but to an observer on a platform they would appear to be moving at speed. Since all motion is relative to an inertial frame, the beliefs engendered by one set of observations would merely appear to contradict those motivated by another. But, as soon as a frame of reference is supplied the 'contradiction' simply disappears.
And it will not do to point out the trite nature of R15 and R16 --, not, that is, unless and until DM-theorists tell us what they mean by the obscure phrase "dialectical contradiction". [Since that topic is dealt with fully in Essay Eight Parts One, Two and Three, no more will be said about it here.]
All this is quite apart from the fact that DM-texts themselves contain little other than trite examples (boiling water, contradictory seeds, anecdotes from The Arabian Nights, characters who speak "prose all their lives", the differential fighting ability of Mamelukes, cone bearings, "Yea, Yea"/"Nay, Nay", etc., etc.) -- it is Mickey Mouse Science, after all.
As seems clear, apparent 'contradictions' are not presented to us by nature and/or society totally unadorned, as it were; they arise either from ambiguities inherent in language or from a lack of clarity (etc.) in the original 'problem' (or so it is claimed in these Essays). In the above case, the 'contradiction' plainly arose because of a (suppressed) change in reference frame.
Naturally, this would make such contradictions sensitive to choice of reference frame, not dependent on reality as such. However, that was certainly not the point DM-theorists wanted to make about their 'contradictions'. And yet, those mentioned above were either artefacts of a conventionalised choice of inertial frame or they are a consequence of confused thought -- they are certainly not based on reality (whatever that means).33
Putting the natural sciences to one side for the moment, Rees and other DM-theorists in fact use examples drawn from HM to illustrate the alleged clash between "essence" and "appearance". [Several other examples are considered at length in Essay Eight Part Two, here, here and here.] Perhaps an examination of these will help make the point clearer?
Rees's argument, for example, goes as follows:
"The important thing about a Marxist understanding of the distinction between the appearance of things and their essence is twofold: 1) by delving beneath the mass of surface phenomena, it is possible to see the essential relations governing historical change -– thus beneath the appearance of a free and fair market transaction it is possible to see the exploitative relations of class society, but, 2) this does not mean that surface appearances can simply be dismissed as ephemeral events of no consequence. In revealing the essential relations in society, it is also possible to explain more fully than before why they appear in a form different to their real nature. To explain, for instance, why it is that the exploitative class relations at the point of production appear as the exchange of 'a fair day's work for a fair day's pay' in the polished surface of the labour market." [Rees (1998), p.187. Bold emphases added.]
This passage makes it plain that while Capitalism appears on the surface to be fair, its underlying 'essence' is thoroughly exploitative. Hence, in that sense it could be claimed that appearances contradict reality.
Unfortunately, Rees's example is not even a contradiction, however much we might deplore the things it reveals. [Why that is so is explained more fully here. On the misleading nature of the metaphor that certain truths, or even "essences", somehow lie "below the surface", see here.]
Perhaps this is too hasty? Maybe we can rephrase Rees's claim so that the alleged contradiction becomes more obvious:
R17: Capitalism appears to be fair.
R18: It's not the case that Capitalism appears to be fair.
This pair of sentences certainly looks contradictory, but as we saw above, because both sentences are about appearances, they are not what Rees intended.34
Well, maybe then the following are?
R19: Capitalism is exploitative.
R20: It's not the case that Capitalism is exploitative.
This pair certainly seems contradictory, too, but once again, since these two sentences do not contrast appearance with reality they will not do either.
A more helpful guide to Rees's intentions is perhaps contained in the relation he says exists between "essence and appearance" and "subjective and objective" views of the world:
"[F]or Lenin practice overcomes the distinction between subjective and objective and the gap between essence and appearance." [Ibid., pp.190-91.]
This could mean, therefore, that these hard-to-pin-down DM-'contradictions' actually arise between "subjective" and "objective" views of the world. But, even if what Rees says were the case, what precisely is the contradiction here?
Perhaps the following 'argument' might help bring it out:
R21: Capitalism appears to be fair.
R22: This appearance leads people (including workers) to think that it is fair.
R23: Hence, Capitalism is fair.
R24: But, revolutionary theory and practice convinces some that Capitalism is not fair.
R25: Therefore, Capitalism is not fair.
R26: Consequently, Capitalism is both fair and not fair.
R27: But, the contradiction in R26 implies that R23 cannot be true (based on the truth of R25).
R28: Therefore, Capitalism is not fair.35
Ignoring the fact that the above argument in hopelessly invalid, its message looks reasonably clear: the 'objectivity' of revolutionary theory (expressed in R24) makes plain the contradiction in R26.
However, even if that were the case, the contradiction is still not between appearance and reality, but between certain beliefs held about both, or perhaps the inferences made from each.
Anyway, few people (and certainly no revolutionaries) believe that capitalism is both fair and not fair at the same time. Anyone who gives the matter sufficient thought will agree either with R23 or R25, but not both at once. Indeed, that is why R28 would be held true by socialists. However, DM requires both R23 and R25 (and hence R26) to be true at once. But, we have been here already.36
It could be objected to this that the above appearances lead to the false belief that Capitalism is fair, which is contradicted by the fact that it is not, and it is this which yields the required contradiction. But, no one is questioning the fact that there are all sorts of contradictory beliefs in people's heads. What is at issue here is (1) whether any two can be (unequivocally) held true together and (2) whether appearances contradict reality --, both of which have yet to be established.37
Hence, it doesn't look like we can construct a clear example of the sort of contradiction Rees had in mind -- even when we use his own choice of candidate!
Nevertheless, this latest impasse introduces yet another problem facing DM-epistemology: if appearances are finally acknowledged to be (in some way) deceptive, not entirely or fully accurate (or 'real'), or they are said to be limited or misleading to some extent, how can anything of value be learnt from them or by means of them? Worse still, if revolutionary practice itself takes place at the level of appearances how can it serve as a test of the objectivity of Marxist theory?
The next few sections are aimed at resolving these unexpected difficulties.
Adrift In A Sea Of Appearances
I propose to examine the contribution revolutionary practice makes to the validation of theory in more detail in Essay Ten Part One, and Essay Nine Part Two, but for present purposes it's worth pointing out that practice cannot in fact test 'objectivity' in the way imagined -- and this is not just because the word "objective" is itself hopelessly vague. As noted above, it's because practice clearly takes place at the level of appearances, which according to DM cannot be anything other than 'subjective'.38
Admittedly, some Marxists claim that there is such a thing as "theoretical practice", but even here its deliverances can only surface in the world of appearances.
Unless we are committed to the bizarre idea that theoretical propositions live an abstract world of their own, accessible only to the 'mind', and are not embodied or expressed in anything material -– that is, that they cannot ever be written down or spoken out loud, or even whispered in soliloquy -– the deflationary conclusion that theoretical propositions are as material as sticks and stones must stand.
Plainly, that is because abstract objects (and the words used to express them) must appear in the phenomenal world at some point or forever be unknown to us. In the real world, even theoretical propositions have to be written down or uttered in a public language, and that immediately places them in the grip of these 'unreliable appearances'.
Exception might be taken to the above since it seems to imply that dialecticians regard appearances as unreliable, misleading or false (even though, as we will see, Herbert Marcuse, for example, openly admits they are). On the contrary, it could be maintained that dialecticians do not believe this of appearances. Indeed, the following passage from TAR underlines this fact:
"…[T]his does not mean that surface appearances can simply be dismissed as ephemeral events of no consequence. In revealing the essential relations in society, it is also possible to explain more fully than before why they appear in a form different to their real nature. To explain, for instance, why it is that the exploitative class relations at the point of production appear as the exchange of 'a fair day's work for a fair day's pay' in the polished surface of the labour market." [Rees (1998), p.187. Bold emphasis added.]
"There is a deeper reality, but it must be able to account for the contradiction between it and the way it appears." [Ibid., p.188.]
But if, as these passages say, superficial appearances are not only not a guide to deeper "essences", they "contradict" them, then they must be deceptive at some point, especially if most human beings misread them or are misled by them, and it takes clued-in Marxists to disabuse them of their false beliefs. If the exploitative relations in Capitalism are not really as they seem, and if on this view they "appear in a form different from their real nature", then what they reveal cannot be anything other than misleading. There is no other way of reading this passage. [This topic is discussed more thoroughly in Notes 33 to 35.]
Again, it could be argued that DM-theorists do not adhere to such a simple-minded view of the relation between appearance and reality; they hold that there is a dialectical interplay between theory and practice. This means that even though thought depends on appearances for its immediate content, it nevertheless ascends by means of abstraction and critical analysis/synthesis (subsequently confirmed in practice) to a more adequate theoretical and concrete understanding of reality (rooted in past theory, which is not set in stone). In the long-term, this process leads to a more accurate account of the real processes at work in Capitalist society. At each stage, thought returns to the original world of experience where, after again being tested in practice, its content may be viewed in a more all-rounded, concrete manner. This process of cognition renders the conclusions drawn objective (even if they are still only partially/relatively true). Hence, appearances need not be regarded as merely subjective, as suggested above; their connection with underlying reality allows them to be viewed in a different, more complex, inter-connected, all-rounded light, allowing revolutionaries to understand why things seem the way they do.
Or so it might be argued.
Despite this fanfare, the fact is that the old conservative adage, "A fair day's pay for a fair day's work", for instance, could not serve as a guiding principle for revolutionaries writing agitational leaflets, no matter how many hoops dialectical sloganeers force it through.
That is because at no stage in the execution of these elaborate dialectical gyrations would it be correct to say, think, or even imply that Capitalism is not exploitative. No matter how many dialectical somersaults are expertly performed, only the most naïve of militants would believe a boss who said that he or she could not afford the latest pay demand from a strike committee.
If so, and in practice once more, no revolutionary would take the beliefs encouraged by the superficial appearances of Capitalist society as anything other than false, or self-serving. Certainly, no Marxist -- this side of a major sell-out, that is -- believes Capitalism is "fair" and acts according to that belief.39
Anyway, this rejoinder (from a few paragraphs back) seems to rely on the assumption that thoughts and theories are not themselves 'appearances' -– i.e., that they do not surface in a public language, in an open arena in a material form of some sort. In fact, reading DM-texts on the "dialectical method" one gets the distinct impression that familiar dialectical acrobatics -- like the ones that Rees mentions above -- take place in a sort of inner psychic sports arena, as it were, where concepts and abstractions are put through their paces in private. And not just that; it very much looks like these dialectical summersaults must be performed afresh each time, by DM-fan in each individual head.
That was one of the main themes of the first half of this Part of Essay Three: the idea that DM-epistemology, for all its pretensions to the contrary, is trapped in a bourgeois individualist dungeon. [The general principles underlying the social nature of language and knowledge will be addressed again in much more detail in Essays Twelve Part One and Thirteen Part Three.]
Hence, as was noted earlier, it's difficult not to conclude that the process of abstraction is a skill that adepts learn to perform as isolated individuals in their own private inner auditorium. As seems plain, we have yet to witness teams of synchronised dialecticians all chanting in unison the latest verbal application of their most recent dialectical flip, under the direction of the Absolute as it Notions its way into glory, or, indeed, under the militant baton of a Gerry Healy or a Bob Avakian in full sectarian flow. So, how DM-fans imagine they are capable of coordinating their separate dialectical antics (if, as they imagine, these are all carried out in some sort of inner mental gymnasium) is entirely mysterious. In fact, given the truth of DM-epistemology, no two dialecticians would ever be able to determine whether or not their individual feats of abstraction actually converged on the same target, let alone the right target. [On that, see here and here.]
And, as if to rub it in, HCDs are, to all appearances, petty-bourgeois intellectuals, and LCDs are by-and-large petty-bourgeois or de-classé martinets who arrived at (allegedly) the same individualist conclusions, but by far less salubrious methods.
In short, the superficial gestures DM-theorists make toward their belief in the social nature of knowledge are at odds with the theoretical pronouncements they regularly intone. Given the latter, knowledge could not be a social product. Conversely, if knowledge is a social product, Abstractionism cannot work.
Here, at least, essence and appearance nicely coincide; a genuine unity of non-opposites.
[More on this in Essay Twelve, Part One, and Essay Thirteen Part Three.]
To be sure, we see dialecticians reporting to all and sundry the results of their own 'inner' machinations (this they do verbally, or in print --, indeed they have no choice, they have to do one or both of these, in this 'world of appearances'), but short of a hot-line connecting each dialectical brain to the next, there is no way that the contents of any one inner 'abstractorium' could be made available to any other member of the same 'dialectical display team', for validation, or even for comparison.
So, in order to compare their ideas (etc.), dialecticians have to record their deliberations in this material world, in some form or other, where those nasty 'appearances' reign supreme.
If so, and if we are to believe what we are told about this unreliable world of appearances, no DM-proposition could be "objective" in any sense of that word.
Of course, it could be argued that even if DM-propositions surface in the world of appearances, that does not affect their content, what they are about. And yet, anyone wishing to ascertain what they are "about" has to rely on what appears before them in this shady world of appearances, and thus what they conclude about their content will only appear to be this or that. There is no way round this obstacle for anyone who has bought into the boss-class distinction between 'appearances' and 'reality'.
Furthermore, even if it were true that abstraction takes place in the 'mind', unless DM-theorists are prepared to accept a quasi-Cartesian account of thoughts (one in which the latter guarantee their own veracity, as opposed to merely appearing to do so),39a the inner dialectical detour they advocate cannot succeed in accomplishing all that is required of it, or, indeed, anything at all. Hence, without postulating the existence of abstractions that are self-authenticating, and thoughts that are self-certifying (and thus in need of no support from practice or evidence), these 'inner phenomena' cannot by-pass the need to make a validating entrance into the world of appearances.40
Even in the mind's alleged 'inner chamber', a 'thought' is no less of an appearance than is any deliverance of the senses. Even to the most solipsistically-incarcerated comrade, his or her thoughts merely appear to him/her to be thus and so.
And even if such ideas and concepts were 'self-certifying', they would still only appear to be so.40a
If, on the other hand, the existence of self-interpreting and auto-confirming thoughts were part of DM-epistemology (there is an echo of this in Hegel, but as far as I can determine, no Marxist dialectician has gone the whole hog here and agreed with Hegel, or even gone so much as half-hog in that direction), and thoughts were deemed not to be part of the world of appearances, then they would be no different from the 'intelligent ideas' we met earlier.
However, as seems plain, if DM-theorists were argue along these lines, it would make a mockery of the materialist flip they supposedly inflicted on Hegel's system, for such thoughts would then be little different from Hegelian ideas, but now in fragmented self-development. So, if thoughts are to be excluded from the world of appearances, then there seems to be no way to distinguish them from Platonic/Cartesian/Hegelian self-developing, self-certifying ('semi-divine') ideas. And if that is so, their subsequent referral back to the empirical world for testing and verification would be an empty gesture. Why bother to test a god-like thought? Did Moses check the Ten Commandments or the creation story in the Book of Genesis?
Moving higher up the cosmic pecking-order: did Gerry Healy check a single thing he ever said?
And, of course, we all know Bob Avakian doesn't need to.
But, things are worse than even this might suggest: not even 'God' can side-step how things appear to 'Him'. Even to the 'Absolute Idea', at the end of time, things merely appear to be as history has delivered them to 'Him/Her/It'.
And we can console ourselves with the further thought that whoever denies these deflationary conclusions must do so in this world of appearances, or stay silent.
Indeed, even Hegel's system is accessible only to those who can read, speak or hear. That is because Hegel's writings (indeed, anyone's writings) confront us now as phenomenal objects, and in this realm, appearances hold the whip hand.
Any appearance to the contrary is plainly misleading.
Dialectics Goes Into Auto-Destruct Mode
Furthermore -- and this should not need pointing out --, thoughts and theories can be just as mistaken as beliefs based on appearances can.41 For example, the thought that sticks bend when put in water is no less (potentially) misleading than is the analogous appearance to that effect. [That is partly what lay behind the point made above about contradictory beliefs.]
Indeed, the history of science is littered with erroneous and radically mistaken theories. With respect to DM, the situation is far, far worse. Given the DM-thesis that knowledge depends on an infinite asymptotic convergence on an ever-elusive absolute or Ideal limit, DM-epistemology is little different from radical scepticism. [This allegation is substantiated at length here.] If so, there is an extremely high probability that even the soundest of DM-theses only looks correct, and the very latest and best DM-abstraction merely appears to be valid, when neither are, or even remotely are.42
Unfortunately, once the virus-like distinction between 'appearance' and 'reality' is introduced into thought, the downfall of the theory that invited it in is all but guaranteed. Indeed for that theory, the hour of its birth is the hour of its death.
Now, this is one idea that does self-develop, but not in a healthy direction, or in a direction DM-theorists should welcome. In fact, it rapidly goes into self-destruct mode. For if nothing in epistemology is indubitable (save we revert to comforting Cartesian certainties, once more --, which anyway only seem to be secure, and only to those who think signs or ideas can interpret themselves), then the superiority of thought over phenomena, essence over accident, and reality over appearance is illusory -- given this crazy way of seeing things.
In which case, alongside misleading phenomena we now have to contend with even more dubious DM-theories and abstractions. And, like it or not, these latterly suspect theories cannot form a secure basis for any subsequent explanation of the "true nature" of those equally shaky appearances. An apparently correct theory is clearly incapable of providing the required certainty for the safe interpretation of those suspiciously misleading phenomena. Hence, a radically suspect theory (such as DM) stands no chance.
Oscillate dialectically as much as you like -- between thought and appearance, essence and accident --, loop the dialectical loop all day long, it matters not --, traditional philosophical notions like these (i.e., "essence", "reality", "appearance", "theory", and "objectivity", and their ilk), are now irredeemably lost in a shadowy world of mere semblance.43
So, it now seems that the already suspect dialectical circuit locks DM in permanent orbit around these eternally shaky appearances. In that case, for any DM-theorist who uses problematic concepts like these ('appearance' and 'reality'), the supposed route that leads into abstract theory -- and then back again (via practice), as a way of delving behind phenomena to uncover their hidden "essences" --, is forever blocked. For just as soon as a single DM-abstraction is penned, typed, thought about or spoken, it enters and then remains trapped in this world of faded simulacra.
Despite -- and contrary to -- this, it could be argued that dialecticians actually locate abstraction in thought, and this associates it with theory and thus with essences, not with appearances.
But, this rebuttal will not do, for thought (according to DM) only becomes objective in practice. Thought does not become objective if it is confined in an inner, mental/abstract domain; it has to enter the phenomenal world through practice (minimally, it has to be spoken or written down, if it is to be acted upon, or tested) in order for it to mature into 'objectivity'. Unfortunately, given this terminally unwise DM-way of depicting things, in the phenomenal world appearances reign supreme, and any material representation of thought (and any attempt to resolve anything whatsoever in practice) must negotiate its peace with them.
Indeed, given this traditional view of things, they are unforgiving taskmasters.
Moreover, if the further restrictions DM places on thought are taken into account (i.e., those related to practice once more), there would be no way of corroborating a single DM-proposition -- at least, not one that wasn't itself compromised by doubts initiated by the 'reality'/'appearance' distinction, too (even more so if the 'asymptotic approach' metaphor is thrown in for good measure). Furthermore, as is the case with thought, confirmation is not self-certifying, either; it too has to earn its keep in this vale of appearances. Practice is also situated here. Hence any test of theory must take place in this allegedly unreliable world of appearances. If so, practice cannot supply the DM-epistemologist with a handy 'get-out-of-a-need-to-appeal-to-appearances-free' card.
Negotiate the rusty DM-banger around as many dialectical bends as you like, it matters not: it still winds-up wrapped around the same old tree of appearances.
And this is just one more reason why genuine materialists distrust the Idealist non-sense dialecticians have unwisely imported into Marxism from Hegel.
Indeed, as we have seen, this hopeless muddle is a direct consequence of borrowing a set of ideas from Traditional Metaphysics; in this case, those connected with the 'appearance'/'reality' distinction.
It may easily be avoided by rejecting this historically regressive clanger in its entirety.
Naturally, this does not mean that an HM-analysis of Capitalism, for example, is incapable of distinguishing between its genuinely exploitative relations and the false beliefs workers (and others) form of them --, nor of accounting for the contradictory ideas people develop as a result.44 But, it does mean that we may only construct these successfully (in HM) if the confused categories of traditional Metaphysics and DM are completely abandoned.
And good riddance, too...
1. A short, clear introduction to this topic can be found in Staniland (1973). More details can be found in Aaron (1967), although Aaron concentrates almost exclusively on post-Cartesian theorists. Also see Tugendhat (1982), and here, here and here.
1a. As we saw in Part One of this Essay, and as we will see in Essay Four, a syntactical segue was engineered by traditional theorists, who altered the way general words function in indicative sentences, transforming predicate expressions into the names of abstract particulars. These misbegotten abstractions were then projected onto the world so that material reality was made to conform to them rather than the other way round; the Ideal became the arbiter of the material.
In this way, the 'rational' world of the Ancient Greeks (and that of the vast majority of subsequent Philosophers) was nothing more than a reflection of distorted language, as Marx noted:
"The philosophers have only to dissolve their language into the ordinary language, from which it is abstracted, in order to recognise it, as the distorted language of the actual world, and to realise that neither thoughts nor language in themselves form a realm of their own, that they are only manifestations of actual life." [Marx and Engels (1970), p.118. Bold emphasis alone added.]
And as Hegel let slip:
"Every philosophy is essentially an idealism or at least has idealism for its principle, and the question then is only how far this principle is carried out." [Hegel (1999), pp.154-55; §316.]
[The ideological background to these moves is exposed in Essay Twelve (summary here).]
1aa. Marcuse expresses the Idealism implicit in the Hegelian tradition (upside down, or 'the right way up') rather well:
"Prior to this formalisation, the experience of the divided world finds its logic in the Platonic dialectic, Here, the terms 'Being' 'Non-being' 'Movement,' 'the One and the Many' 'Identity' and 'Contradiction' are methodically kept open, ambiguous, not fully defined. They have an open horizon, an entire universe of meaning which is gradually structured in the process of communication itself, but which is never closed. The propositions are submitted, developed, and tested in a dialogue, in which the partner is led to question the normally unquestioned universe of experience and speech, and to enter a new dimension of discourse -- otherwise he is free and the discourse is addressed to his freedom. He is supposed to go beyond that which is given to him -- as the speaker, in his proposition, goes beyond the initial setting of the terms. These terms have many meanings because the conditions to which they refer have many sides, implications, and effects which cannot be insulated and stabilised. Their logical development responds to the process of reality, or Sache selbst ['thing itself' -- RL]. The laws of thought are laws of reality, or rather become the laws of reality if thought understands the truth of immediate experience as the appearance of another truth, which is that of the true Forms of reality -- of the Ideas. Thus there is contradiction rather than correspondence between dialectical thought and the given reality; the true judgment judges this reality not in its own terms, but in terms which envisage its subversion. And in this subversion, reality comes into its own truth.
"In the classical logic, the judgment which constituted the original core of dialectical thought was formalised in the propositional form, 'S is p.' But this form conceals rather than reveals the basic dialectical proposition, which states the negative character of the empirical reality. Judged in the light of their essence and idea, men and things exist as other than they are; consequently thought contradicts that which is (given), opposes its truth to that of the given reality. The truth envisaged by thought is the Idea. As such it is, in terms of the given reality, 'mere' Idea, 'mere' essence -- potentiality....
"This contradictory, two-dimensional style of thought is the inner form not only of dialectical logic but of all philosophy which comes to grips with reality. The propositions which define reality affirm as true something that is not (immediately) the case; thus they contradict that which is the case, and they deny its truth. The affirmative judgment contains a negation which disappears in the propositional form (S is p). For example, 'virtue is knowledge'; 'justice is that state in which everyone performs the function for which his nature is best suited'; 'the perfectly real is the perfectly knowable'; 'verum est id, quod est' ['the true is that which is' -- RL]; 'man is free'; 'the State is the reality of Reason.'
"If these propositions are to be true, then the copula 'is' states an 'ought,' a desideratum. It judges conditions in which virtue is not knowledge, in which men do not perform the function for which their nature best suits them, in which they are not free, etc. Or, the categorical S-p form states that (S) is not (S); (S) is defined as other-than-itself. Verification of the proposition involves a process in fact as well as in thought: (S) must become that which it is. The categorical statement thus turns into a categorical imperative; it does not state a fact but the necessity to bring about a fact. For example, it could be read as follows: man is not (in fact) free, endowed with inalienable rights, etc., but he ought to be, because be is free in the eyes of God, by nature, etc....
"Existing as the living contradiction between essence and appearance, the objects of thought are of that 'inner negativity' which is the specific quality of their concept. The dialectical definition defines the movement of things from that which they are not to that which they are. The development of contradictory elements, which determines the structure of its object, also determines the structure of dialectical thought. The object of dialectical logic is neither the abstract, general form of objectivity, nor the abstract, general form of thought -- nor the data of immediate experience. Dialectical logic undoes the abstractions of formal logic and of transcendental philosophy, but it also denies the concreteness of immediate experience. To the extent to which this experience comes to rest with the things as they appear and happen to be, it is a limited and even false experience. It attains its truth if it has freed itself from the deceptive objectivity which conceals the factors behind the facts -- that is, if it understands its world as a historical universe, in which the established facts are the work of the historical practice of man. This practice (intellectual and material) is the reality in the data of experience; it is also the reality which dialectical logic comprehends." [Marcuse (1968), pp.110-17. Italic emphasis in the original; bold emphases added. Spelling corrected to conform to UK English. I have used the on-line text here, and have corrected any typographical errors I managed to spot.]
It's worth noting that Marcuse connects the subject-predicate form with the alleged 'contradiction' between 'essence' and 'appearance', which neatly confirms the analysis developed in Part One of this Essay.
The same basic point is made by John Rees, but in much plainer language:
"The important thing about a Marxist understanding of the distinction between the appearance of things and their essence is twofold: 1) by delving beneath the mass of surface phenomena, it is possible to see the essential relations governing historical change -– thus beneath the appearance of a free and fair market transaction it is possible to see the exploitative relations of class society, but, 2) this does not mean that surface appearances can simply be dismissed as ephemeral events of no consequence. In revealing the essential relations in society, it is also possible to explain more fully than before why they appear in a form different to their real nature. To explain, for instance, why it is that the exploitative class relations at the point of production appear as the exchange of 'a fair day's work for a fair day's pay' in the polished surface of the labour market....
"There is a deeper reality, but it must be able to account for the contradiction between it and the way it appears." [Rees (1998), p.187-88. Bold emphases added. Quotation marks altered to conform to the conventions adopted at this site.]
We will have occasion to return to these two, later. [However, see also Note 1b.]
1b. Donald Davidson puts the point rather well:
"In one dialogue or another Plato tells us that the forms are not perceived by the senses, but are objects of the mind; that they are imperishable; that they are indivisible; that they are superior to material objects; that they are norms by which we judge material things; that they have a certain creative power (the form of wisdom 'makes' Socrates wise). Material objects participate in, resemble, copy, or are modelled by the forms. Problems arise because some of these characteristics of the forms turn out to clash with others. If material things resemble the forms they instantiate to various degrees, then material things have something in common with any form they resemble. If a well-drawn circle resembles the form of circularity, it must be because both the particular drawn circle and the form of circularity share the property of circularity; but then what the particular and the property share must be still another form. Scholars of Plato have puzzled over this problem, the problem of the 'third man,' because it seems to lead to an infinite regress." [Davidson (2005), pp.78-79. Quotation marks altered to conform to the conventions adopted at this site.]
Of course, Davidson goes on to argue that Plato seems to have overcome this problem by arguing that it's a mistake, for example, to think that shapes also have a shape, or that Socrates resembles the concept of a man. This may be so, but it's not easy to see how forms can be exemplars of the things they instantiate if they share nothing with them. Be this as it may, Davidson then adds that even if Plato managed to circumvent this 'difficulty', his theory falls foul of another and more recalcitrant infinite regress: the problem of predication and the unity of the proposition, covered in Part One of this Essay.
However, this doctrine immediately demotes the 'evidence' that sense experience delivers, making it of secondary importance (or even of no consequence) in comparison to that which is delivered by 'thought', or by 'tradition' (as Plato's Allegory of the Cave confirms).
This depreciation of the material and the contingent is what we find, too, in the Platonic and Neoplatonic traditions, both of which find an echo in Hegel's work, and thus in DM [On that, see O'Regan (1994). This theme will be explored in detail in Essay Fourteen Part One (summary here).]
Indeed, if "What is rational is real, and what is real is rational" [Hegel (2005), p.xix.], then both of these (the real and the rational) are inaccessible to the senses and the outward appearance of things cannot match their real form. That is because only the mind is rational, and material things aren't mind, and hence cannot be rational. [The various responses that could be made to that seemingly dogmatic claim will be considered in detail in Essay Twelve Part Four.] Or, at least, the latter can only be reconciled with the former if the material world is regarded as an aspect of Mind, or even perhaps as an ideal entity itself. Hence, the logical conclusion is that, despite appearances to the contrary, everything must be Mind or an aspect of it.
This means that, at best, appearances are misleading, at worst, they are 'contradicted' by underlying 'essences' -- as dialecticians indeed try to tell us. In any such clash between the 'evidence' that the senses deliver and the rational principles the 'mind' employs, traditional thought always privileged the latter over the former, as the following authors point out:
"Empirical, contingent truths have always struck philosophers as being, in some sense, ultimately unintelligible. It is not that none can be known with certainty…; nor is it that some cannot be explained…. Rather is it that all explanation of empirical truths rests ultimately on brute contingency -- that is how the world is! Where science comes to rest in explaining empirical facts varies from epoch to epoch, but it is in the nature of empirical explanation that it will hit the bedrock of contingency somewhere, e.g., in atomic theory in the nineteenth century or in quantum mechanics today. One feature that explains philosophers' fascination with truths of Reason is that they seem, in a deep sense, to be fully intelligible. To understand a necessary proposition is to see why things must be so, it is to gain an insight into the nature of things and to apprehend not only how things are, but also why they cannot be otherwise. It is striking how pervasive visual metaphors are in philosophical discussions of these issues. We see the universal in the particular (by Aristotelian intuitive induction); by the Light of Reason we see the essential relations of Simple Natures; mathematical truths are apprehended by Intellectual Intuition, or by a priori insight. Yet instead of examining the use of these arresting pictures or metaphors to determine their aptness as pictures, we build upon them mythological structures.
"We think of necessary propositions as being true or false, as objective and independent of our minds or will. We conceive of them as being about various entities, about numbers even about extraordinary numbers that the mind seems barely able to grasp…, or about universals, such as colours, shapes, tones; or about logical entities, such as the truth-functions or (in Frege's case) the truth-values. We naturally think of necessary propositions as describing the features of these entities, their essential characteristics. So we take mathematical propositions to describe mathematical objects…. Hence investigation into the domain of necessary propositions is conceived as a process of discovery. Empirical scientists make discoveries about the empirical domain, uncovering contingent truths; metaphysicians, logicians and mathematicians appear to make discoveries of necessary truths about a supra-empirical domain (a 'third realm'). Mathematics seems to be the 'natural history of mathematical objects' [Wittgenstein (1978), p.137], 'the physics of numbers' [Wittgenstein (1976), p.138; however these authors record this erroneously as p.139, RL] or the 'mineralogy of numbers' [Wittgenstein (1978), p.229]. The mathematician, e.g., Pascal, admires the beauty of a theorem as though it were a kind of crystal. Numbers seem to him to have wonderful properties; it is as if he were confronting a beautiful natural phenomenon [Wittgenstein (1998), p.47; again, these authors have recorded this erroneously as p.41, RL]. Logic seems to investigate the laws governing logical objects…. Metaphysics looks as if it is a description of the essential structure of the world. Hence we think that a reality corresponds to our (true) necessary propositions. Our logic is correct because it corresponds to the laws of logic….
"In our eagerness to ensure the objectivity of truths of reason, their sempiternality and mind-independence, we slowly but surely transform them into truths that are no less 'brutish' than empirical, contingent truths. Why must red exclude being green? To be told that this is the essential nature of red and green merely reiterates the brutish necessity. A proof in arithmetic or geometry seems to provide an explanation, but ultimately the structure of proofs rests on axioms. Their truth is held to be self-evident, something we apprehend by means of our faculty of intuition; we must simply see that they are necessarily true…. We may analyse such ultimate truths into their constituent 'indefinables'. Yet if 'the discussion of indefinables…is the endeavour to see clearly, and to make others see clearly, the entities concerned, in order that the mind may have that kind of acquaintance with them which it has with redness or the taste of a pineapple' [Russell (1937), p.xv; again these authors record this erroneously as p.v, RL], then the mere intellectual vision does not penetrate the logical or metaphysical that to the why or wherefore…. For if we construe necessary propositions as truths about logical, mathematical or metaphysical entities which describe their essential properties, then, of course, the final products of our analyses will be as impenetrable to reason as the final products of physical theorising, such as Planck's constant." [Baker and Hacker (1988), pp.273-75. Referencing conventions in the original have been altered to conform to those adopted here.]
"Already with Fichte the idea of the unity of the sciences, of system, was connected with that of finding a reliable starting-point in certainty on which knowledge could be based. Thinkers from Kant onwards were quite convinced that the kind of knowledge which came from experience was not reliable. Empirical knowledge could be subject to error, incomplete, or superseded by further observation or experiment. It would be foolish, therefore, to base the whole of knowledge on something which had been established only empirically. The kind of knowledge which Kant and his followers believed to be the most secure was a priori knowledge, the kind embodied in the laws of Nature. These had been formulated without every occurrence of the Natural phenomenon in question being observed, so they did not summarise empirical information, and yet they held good by necessity for every case; these laws were truly universal in their application." [White (1996a), p.29.]
But, as we will see in Essays Ten Part One and Twelve Part One, not only is this in the end a fruitless exercise (in that it can't deliver what had been advertised for it), it destroys the capacity we have for framing any ideas at all. [We saw this in Part One.]
Even worse: Dialectical Marxists [DIMs] have shown that they, too, are quite happy to adopt this anti-materialist, and hence ruling-class view of physical reality. Such 'ruling ideas' certainly rule these (now) non-radical minds. Again, the sad truth is what DIMs have done is all to no avail; it has gained them no knowledge whatsoever.
This means that while DIMs have hocked the 'materialist cow', they haven't even received a handful of beans in return.
Figure One: Jack Negotiates A Far Superior Deal
This also helps explain why DM-theses collapse into incoherence alarmingly quickly, as the next ten Essays will demonstrate.
On the "Third Man Argument", see Allen (1960), Code (1985), Cohen (1971), Geach (1956), Owen (1953), Strang (1963), and Vlastos (1954, 1956).
It's important to add to what I said earlier: Plato himself does not make the sort of mistake I attribute to others throughout this Essay -- except in places were he argues that the forms also "participate" in their own form, when for example, he speaks of the Form of the Beautiful being beautiful itself, which implies it's an abstract particular, too. In fact, he hypostatises the Forms in other ways (and not solely as the reference of predicate expressions), but as exemplars -- which function rather like, say, the Standard Metre in Paris. [I owe this point to Peter Geach, who reveals it was communicated to him by Wittgenstein; on that, see Geach's article referenced above. However, there is a problem with this interpretation of Plato; cf., Note 1bb, below.]
1bb. It's worth pointing out that if we accept Plato's more considered theory that the Forms are exemplars, then an anthropological and sociological account of generality becomes available, for in that case, as Berkeley began to appreciate (and Wittgenstein developed in detail), generality can be accounted for on the basis of rule-governed linguistic behaviour and interaction, rather than on the basis of a mystical theory of ghostly Forms, Concepts or Universals.
This undercuts a serious problem regarding the Forms as exemplars. If the latter work like the Standard Metre in Paris (as I suggested above), then the 'Third Man' problem must reappear. That is because, even the Standard Metre shares properties/features with an ordinary measuring rod or device. However, if the Standard Metre is regarded as the embodiment of a rule (so how we apply it is what is important), and not so much a physical exemplar, then those difficulties vanish. It makes no sense to suppose a rule shares anything with whatever it's applied to -- after all, the Standard Metre itself cannot tell us how to apply it.
[Of course, the above is far too sketchy, but this is not meant to be an academic exercise in philosophy! (On this, see the references listed in Essay Twelve Part One, where I develop some of these ideas in more detail.)]
1c0. This is not to suggest that there aren't other important currents in political thought, but I am here concentrating on the source of rationalist theories of the state and the world-views that underpinned them.
1c. This might not seem an important point; that misconception will be laid to rest in Essay Twelve (summary here), where this philosophical move will be linked in with other themes running right through the long history of ruling-class thought, only to re-surface in DM, and the substitutionism it helps rationalise. [On the latter, see Essay Nine Parts One and Two.]
2. The ideological background to "Possessive Individualism" is set out in detail in MacPherson (1964). An outline of the philosophical context can be found in Hacking (1975). Unfortunately, despite its other strengths, Hacking's book is largely a-historical --, i.e., in the sense that it fails to link changes in philosophical fashion to ambient social forces, ideological pressures, and changes in the Mode of Production -- which is no surprise, since Hacking does not claim to be a Marxist.
A clearer Marxist account -- but, restricted to philosophical ideas connected with scientific change -- can be found in Freudenthal (1986), and a more sophisticated one in Hadden (1994). The latter is itself based on ideas found in Borkenau (1987), Grossmann (1987), and Sohn-Rethel (1978).
A Wittgensteinian slant to all this can be found in Robinson (2003), especially chapters 9, 10, 12 and 14.
More details can be found at Guy Robinson's website, here. [Unfortunately, this site is down right now. However, several of his Essays can now be accessed at this site, here.]
2a. As should now be clear, if the traditional analysis of predication turned general terms into the names of abstract particulars, then even the sentence, "This is a general idea of F" must suffer the same fate, with the term "general idea of F" now naming yet another abstract particular!
The bowdlerised and corrupted 'Term Logic' employed by early modern Philosophers (and that includes Kant and Hegel) even interpreted quantifiers (such as "every", "all", "nothing", and "some") as special sorts of names. This serious error was not corrected until Frege's revolutionary logic hit the philosophical streets nearly a century later. [On this, see Geach (1972b). See also here, but note the caveats I have added here.]
This ancient syntactical error resurfaces too in the way that concepts are interpreted by DM-fans; just like names, these are held to refer to, or are said to "reflect", aspects of reality. Such 'concepts' are thus capable of being true (or "relatively true") on their own, as isolated atoms. Unfortunately, this makes the unit of meaning (so to speak) the individual word/concept, not the sentence, proposition or language. In this way, naming, not saying, becomes the model for understanding meaning in language. [On this, see Hacking (1975).] That, of course, allowed Hegel to see the self-development of concepts as central to his system, ignoring how we actually use language. On this, see here, and Note 6a, below.
In that case, we have witnessed the formation of many centuries of Idealist hot air based solely on this seemingly insignificant logical gaffe. As Wittgenstein noted: Metaphysics is merely a shadow cast on reality by grammar; in this case, distorted grammar, as indeed Marx himself noted:
"We have shown that thoughts and ideas acquire an independent existence in consequence of the personal circumstances and relations of individuals acquiring independent existence. We have shown that exclusive, systematic occupation with these thoughts on the part of ideologists and philosophers, and hence the systematisation of these thoughts, is a consequence of division of labour, and that, in particular, German philosophy is a consequence of German petty-bourgeois conditions. The philosophers have only to dissolve their language into the ordinary language, from which it is abstracted, in order to recognise it, as the distorted language of the actual world, and to realise that neither thoughts nor language in themselves form a realm of their own, that they are only manifestations of actual life." [Marx and Engels (1970), p.118. Bold emphases added.]
[More on this in Part Three of this Essay, and in Essays Twelve (summary here) and Thirteen Part Three.]
2b. As we saw in Essay Three Part One, it's human beings who supply the generality here, not words, concepts, or ideas. Plainly, that is because words, concepts, and ideas have no social structure, history or brains -- whereas we do.
3. A natural response to this would be to argue that general names are not like Proper Names, they have a different "mode of signification". This is undeniable, but while it's clear that Proper Names name particulars (or individuals -- but even then, our use of such names is itself rather complex; on this see Baker and Hacker (2005, pp.227-249), it's unclear what general names could actually name. Even to ask this sort of question would be to give the game away, for it trades on the idea that general terms name something, clearly. Hence, in order to remain consistent with the use of ordinary names, general names have to be viewed as referring expressions, too -- denoting an individual of some sort, be it a Universal, class, group, natural kind, set or concept. So, even though some might want to speak of "the set of…", or "the class of…", or "the natural kind…", named by the relevant general name, the use of the definite article nullifies the generality that such general terms once seemed to enjoy.
Hence, these 'abstract individuals' (i.e., "the Universal", "the set of…", or "the class of…", or "the natural kind…") become the referents of these general names, cancelling their generality. Plainly, they now work just like Proper Names.
Of course, giving such abstract things a name begs the question --, which is: Is there indeed one thing here to be named?
Despite an ancient grammatical and logical tradition that treats general nouns as general names (an approach that was itself based on the metaphysical views being questioned here), as we have seen, we may only agree with it if we want to destroy the facility we have in language for using such terms to express generality (in the way outlined in Part One of this Essay).
It could be objected that classes, for example, are not necessarily or even typically singular, but are compound and can have (literally!) countless members. In that case, when a predicate designates the extension of a class, it is neither naming it, nor referring to it.
Of course, it's not too clear whether predicates designate anything; if someone says "The boss is a crook", the use if "...is a crook" is not to designate, but to describe. [On this see Slater (2000).]
Turning a description into a designation would, however, be to repeat the errors analysed in Part One of this Essay; that is, it would be to model all meaningful discourse on the naming relation, only in this case using a euphemism (i.e., "designate") as a fig-leaf to hide that fact.
On this see Ryle (1949). In fact, Ryle called this error the "Fido-Fido Fallacy": the idea that to every word there must correspond something in reality (abstract or concrete) that it names or designates. His point is well summarised here. [This links to an article by Yorick Wilks (a one time student of Wittgenstein's), available as a PDF here.]
4. Why that is so will be revealed presently.
5. It's arguable that, for all their apparent sophistication, modern 'scientific' theories of the mind and language (cybernetically-, cognitively-, or physicalistically-based, etc.) have not advanced much beyond this point. That contentious claim will not be defended here (although it will be defended in depth in Essay Thirteen Part Three).
This entire approach to the Philosophy of Mind is closely questioned in Bennett and Hacker (2003, 2008).
6. We saw this happen (i.e., we saw the life drained out of general terms) in Part One of this Essay, with those lists.
The social and ideological reasons behind such moves will be explored at length in Essay Twelve (summary here, and here).
6a0. For example, witness the habit DM-fans have of speaking about logic as a study of the 'laws of thought'.
6a. No wonder Plato had to appeal to the alleged pre-existence of the soul to account for such recognitional powers. According to Plato, we all know (by acquaintance) the Forms since we were all introduced to them before we were born. Knowledge was thus recollection, and our recognition of the Forms in this world worked because they were really rather like long lost acquaintances we knew in our pre-existing life, but of a rather peculiar sort. [On Platonic recollection, see Crombie (1963), pp.135-47, Guthrie (1986), pp.249-77, and Scott (1999). More on this here, particularly here. See also Note 25, below.]
It is here, in this doctrine, that we can see yet another pernicious side-effect of traditional theories of meaning; if meaning is based on single words, concepts or ideas, then isolated thinkers must relate to these terms as one individual does to another (or, as one mind does to one concept, and so on), just as they do with all their acquaintances. Knowledge and meaning become relations -- the Knower to the Known, the meaning of a word to what it means, Signifier and Signified, and so on. [In a later Essay, we will see this error resurface in Hegel's notion of truth, among other things.]
But, these 'acquaintances' are in reality total strangers, and featureless ones, too. And, since ideas do not carry around with them their 'Metaphysical Identity Cards', how anyone could cognise, let alone re-cognise, these faceless spectres is no less obscure.
[There are echoes of this 'problem' in modern Nativist theories of language based on the work of Chomsky. On this, see Cowie (1997, 2002), and Sampson (2005). Also see a summary of Sampson's criticisms, here. (I hesitate to refer anyone to Sampson's work since he is a right-wing Tory who holds offensive ideas on race; fortunately, this hasn't affected his thought in this area, it seems!)]
Indeed, the article by Yorick Wilks (mentioned in Note 3, above) takes Jerry Fodor to task over rather similar errors. [These issues are discussed in extensive detail in Essay Thirteen Part Three.]
6b. In fact, the insurmountable 'problems' encountered by the doctrine of the Trinity arose directly from Plato and Aristotle's attempts to account for generality -- that is, because of the 'Forms', 'Universals' and 'Substances' they invented. This fact has, of course, been known to anti-Trinitarian Christians for some time.
7. This is not to suggest that there aren't countless 'solutions' to these brainteasers, only that this puzzle has resisted them all for nigh on 2400 years. A new approach is long overdue, therefore.
Fortunately, one such was suggested a generation or so ago, the central point of which was that philosophical 'problems' like this may only be resolved by dissolving them, by identifying the syntactical (etc.) blunders that gave them life, and which even now keep them breathing.
A return to the use of ordinary language at least has the following merit: for Marxists it situates knowledge in the public domain, and on home turf, basing it on the material language of the working class (as we saw Marx himself advise, above). [This topic is examined in more detail in Essay Twelve, Part Two (summary here).]
8. These gnomic comments will be expanded on in Essay Thirteen Part Three.
8a. Again, this theme will be developed extensively in Essay Three Part Five -- along lines suggested by Bertrand Russell [in Russell (1917b)], and developed here, and here -- the first of these is Swartz (2006), the second, Swartz (1985).
How this view emerges from a misuse of language is explored in Essay Twelve Part One. How it anthropomorphises the brain, see essay Thirteen Part Three.
More details can be found in Price and Corry (2007). The line I will be taking (but with a far less theoretical slant) can be found in Hacker (2007), pp.57-89.
9. We shall meet this particular option again in connection with the RRT in Essay Twelve (summary here).
[RRT = Reverse Reflection Theory; this will be explained in Essay Twelve Part Four. Basically, the idea is that on this theory language and 'mind' do not in fact reflect reality (as DM-theorists maintain); quite the reverse: reality is made to reflect contingent features of how DM-theorists think we think.]
10. That explains an earlier aside: traditional Philosophy is based on alienated thought-forms and the fetishisation of language. More on that in Essay Twelve, too (summary here).
11. Again, more details will be given in Essays Twelve and Fourteen (summaries here and here).
12. The so-called "Problem of Induction" centres on the realisation that generalisations about the future course of nature -- based on a finite number of observations of how it has behaved in the past (etc.) --, cannot provide a deductively valid basis for an inference that events (of a certain type) that have not yet happened will always resemble those (of that type) which have, or more generally that the course of nature will remain the same. So, for example, just because water has always frozen at a certain temperature, that does not mean that it always will (i.e., at a given purity and pressure, etc.).
This is brought out well in the following passage:
"But there is a price to be paid for this new methodology. About a hundred years after Bacon, Hume (1711-1776) pointed out the problem.
'The bread, which I formerly eat, nourished me; that is, a body of such sensible qualities was, at that time, endued with such secret powers: But does it follow, that other bread must also nourish me at another time, and that like sensible qualities must always be attended with like secret powers? The consequence seems nowise necessary.'
"If we want to be very careful and not lump things into the same category, if types are not real, if the only real things are particular individuals, then there are no general truths about bread. We can describe the colour, shape, texture, taste and so on of this piece of bread, but if the general kind 'bread' isn't real, then whatever I learn about this piece of bread won't help me learn anything about the next piece of bread. That is the crucial usefulness of real types: if 'cat' is a real type, and not simply a nominal type, then whatever I learn about this particular cat will help me understand all cats. I can learn and know something about how to cure a problem with your cat if I have studied other cats, as long as they are identical in nature. If there is no reality to their unity as cats, then every new particular is just a new thing, and we can learn about it only by studying it; nothing else we study can possibly help us. So the existence of universals turns out to have a very profound impact on scientific methodology and epistemology." [Quoted from here. Quotation marks altered to conform to the conventions adopted at this site; spelling changed to agree with UK English.]
However, as we have seen, the traditional approach to 'Universals' merely translates 'answers' to this 'problem' into another difficulty of the same form, involving yet more Abstract Particulars --, which, of course, may or may not behave the same way tomorrow as they have today. Although Abstract Particulars might be heavenly creatures, there's no guarantee they too won't come off the rails one day; on that see here.
In short an appeal to 'Universals' is to no avail if they also are particulars, which cannot therefore guarantee their own future behaviour without another set of universals to do that for them, and so on ad infinitem...
Of course, any theory wedded to the Heraclitean flux (such as DM) has sunk itself much deeper in the mire than most branches of traditional confusion have, for, given the universal flux, the future cannot resemble the past! Indeed, the word "resemble" cannot even resemble itself! [The 'relative stability' defence is defused here.]
This 'problem' partly originates in the mistaken view that scientific theory delivers a special form of truth. Once that idea is rejected, a solution to the 'problem' of induction soon suggests itself. [These assertions will be substantiated in Essay Thirteen Part Two.]
Nevertheless, let us pose this 'problem' more acutely, pushing it a little further than is usually attempted: Since both the flow of ideas in the mind (even in the heads of Über-Rationalists like Hegel) and the sensations that accompany them are also events, subjective experience cannot avoid being thrown into irredeemable doubt about their future behaviour, too.
In that case, our experience of anything that has yet to occur (and that includes our own future thoughts) might not 'resemble' what they had been, or seemed to have been in the past. Even the nature of our sensations and ideas could alter from moment to moment. If we experience an idea now as an idea of a certain sort, tomorrow it could be experienced as something totally different, even though it might be impossible to say right now what that is (either because we haven't the language available to us to do this, or because it too will change before we can utter anything about it). If we need 'Universals' to guarantee this won't happen, then, given they too are particulars, this line of defence is no use since it, too, has been breached.
Worse still: any 'solution' to this 'problem' could itself be experienced as a non-solution (or as anything whatsoever) at some point in the future.
Naturally, expressed like this that use traditional philosophical language, the 'problem' of how the present binds the future has already lost its way. In fact, as should seem obvious, phrases like "The present" and "The future" are particulars, too (or they 'refer' to particulars), and as such they possess neither the brain nor the brawn to do anything in general to assist the beleaguered traditional thinker extricate him/herself from this sceptical quagmire.
And herein lies a clue to the solution to this entire family of 'problems': ditch this whole way of talking.
Not even the anti-materialist, Aristocratic philosophers who invented it could make head or tail of it.
Since we now know -- partly because it has been exposed it in Part One of this Essay -- the source of these 'difficulties' lies in the syntactical blunder committed by Greek metaphysicians, the above recommended dissolution of 2400 years of wasted effort in fact recommends itself.
And that is why Wittgensteinians do not need a philosophical theory in order to deflate the hot air balloons ruling-class thinkers have inflated down the centuries; these theories self-deflate when their source of the hot air is switched off, and a very materialist pin is introduced into the equation.
12a. David Hume attempted to solve this 'problem' by an appeal to habits of the mind (hence my use of the word "habitus"), which induce in us certain expectations. Clearly this watery-thin notion is susceptible to the challenges laid out in the previous Note, at the very least.
However, the abandonment of the 'logical' or necessary connection between a Universal and its particulars (which took place in the High Middle Ages with the rise of Nominalism) introduced radical contingency into theories about nature (which development was, of course, not unconnected with the decline of the power of the Papacy, as Feudalism began to give way to early forms of the market economy). Rationalist Philosophers (like Spinoza and Leibniz) later found it necessary to undo the damage this 'revision' had inflicted on the 'rational order'. In order to do this, they invented novel 'necessitarian' theories of their own, but these were still based on the same old "ruling idea" that reality was rational, and that fundamental 'truths' about reality can be ascertained by thought alone. [There is an excellent summary of some of these issues in Osler (2004). On the general background, see, for example, Copleston (2003a, 2003b).]
Here is how I have put things in Essay Eleven Part Two: (in relation to a point I was making about Christian Fundamentalists and 'Intelligent Design', but it's equally relevant to the themes of this Essay):
There is an excellent summary of the two main ways theists have conceived of the relationship between 'God' and 'His' creation in Osler (2004), pp.15-35. [These neatly mirror the tensions in the DM-account of nature, too.]
To summarise part of Osler's thesis (with a few additional comments of my own thrown in): If 'God' is related to material reality by necessity, then there will be a logical connection between the properties exhibited by a finite being and its "essence", just as there will be one between such beings and 'God's nature. Because of this link, language and logic in effect constitute reality (these connections are outlined here), whose 'truths' only speculative thought can access. Hence, all that exists is ultimately an expression of logical properties inherent in 'God', and nature is a sort of emanation (that is, material reality is logically "emergent") from the 'Deity'. Everything in nature is therefore connected by "internal and necessary relations", which can be derived from the concepts involved, since they mirror fundamental aspects of creation. This idea is up-front in Plotinus and other Neo-Platonists, like Hegel.
Moreover, most human beings cannot access this 'rational view' of reality (i.e., the 'ill-educated'); they will simply misperceive these logical properties as contingent qualities -- and hence, for them, appearances will fail to match underlying "essence". Naturally, this meant that "commonsense" and ordinary language were unreliable.
Now, where have we heard all that before?
On the other hand, if 'God' acted freely in creating the world, then there will be no logical link between 'Him' and 'His' creation, nor between created beings. Contingent aspects of reality will thus be genuinely contingent, and appearances will no longer be 'deceptive' (since they will not occlude hidden, esoteric "essences" -- for there are none). There are therefore no synthetic a priori truths (as these later came to be known), ascertainable by thought alone. The only path to knowledge was via observation and a study of the 'Book of Nature'.
In which case, it's not surprising that the foundations of modern science were laid down in the Middle Ages largely by theorists who adopted this view of 'God' -- for example, Jean Buridan. [Copleston (2003b), pp.153-76, Crombie (1953), Grant (1996), Hannam (2009), Lindberg (1992).]
In post-Renaissance thought, the former tradition is found in Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz and Hegel; the latter (in an attenuated form) in Newton, the so-called "voluntarists" (who stressed 'God's' free will and the contingency of nature, the primacy of empirical over a priori knowledge, and thus the importance of observation and experiment), the early empiricists, and the "mechanists" (although these categories are rather crude; for example, Descartes was a mechanist, but his theory put him on the same side of the fence as Spinoza and Leibniz, whereas Gassendi was also a mechanist, but his ideas aligned him with the voluntarists).
So, when Fundamentalist Christians look at nature they see design, they see 'irreducible complexity', they see the handiwork of 'God', and they either put that down to 'His' free creation, or they see it as an expression of logical properties imposed on nature by the Logos.
Of course, Christian mechanists saw design in nature, too, but their view became increasingly deistic, and then atheistic, since the assumption of a contingent link between God and nature severed the logical connection that earlier theorists had postulated, making the "God hypothesis" seem increasingly unnecessary. [On this, see Lovejoy (1964). There is a good account of this in Redwood (1976). Also see Dillenberger (1988).] The first sign of this process can be detected in the debate between Leibniz and Clarke. [Cf., Alexander (1956), and Vailati (1997).]
Much of this had, however, been apparent in the work of Medieval Nominalists, who severed the logical link between a substance and its properties, following a reaction to the tradition begun by Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā) -- with his separation of 'essence' and 'existence' in created beings --, Averroës (Ibn Rushd), and the so-called "Latin Averroists" (like Siger of Brabant). The latter argued strongly in favour of Aristotle's doctrine of natural necessity, undermining 'God's' free will -- as the Roman Church began to see things. This reaction was also prompted by philosophical worries about the nature of transubstantiation and the relation between the "essences" of the bread and the wine (in the Eucharist) and their "accidents" (their apparent properties). The aforementioned reaction was occasioned by the 'Condemnations of 1277', wherein the Bishop of Paris, Étienne Tempier, condemned 219 propositions, among which were the Averroist interpretations of Aristotle -- particularly the idea that the created order was governed by logical necessity. The most important response to these condemnations appeared in the work of William of Ockham, who, as a result, stressed the free will of 'God' and thus the contingent nature of the world. This meant that there were no "essences" in nature, nor were the properties of bodies (their "accidents") logically linked to their nominal essences (as these later came to be called, by John Locke). [On this, see Osler (2004), and Copleston (2003a), pp.136-55, 190-95, 437-41; (2003b), pp.43-167.]
In the 18th century, the first tradition, among other things, motivated the "re-enchantment" of nature in the theories invented by the Natürphilosophers, and later those cooked up by Marxist Dialecticians. [On this, see Harrington (1996), Lenoir (1982), Richards (2002), and Essay Fourteen Parts One and Two, when they are published.]
To be sure, this is a superficial summary, but more details can be found in Foster (1934), Hooykaas (1973), Lindberg (1992), and Osler (2004). The Hermetic background to all this can be found in Magee (2002). See also Essay Twelve (summary here).
[At a future date, I will publish an essay on Leibniz, which I wrote as an undergraduate, and which anticipated some of the ideas in Osler's book, for example.]
So, where Christians see design, DM-fans see "internal relations". Same problematic, same source -- same 'solution' too: complete excision.
I will say much more about this in Essay Three Part Five, were I will link these ideas with traditional theories of Mind, Will, Freedom and Determinism, connecting all this with the subsequent enchantment of DIM, in Essay Fourteen Parts One and Two (summary here).
13. Anyone who objects to the anthropomorphic terminology used at this point should recall that it is being employed in order to show how unbelievable traditional theories like this really are when this sort of language is pushed to the limit, and applied more consistently -- and its class roots exposed.
Anyone who still objects should rather take issue with those who first invented such theories, not those who lampoon them.
"Man is born free; and everywhere he is in chains. One thinks himself master of others, and still remains a greater slave than they. How did this come about? I do not know. What can make it legitimate? That question I think I can answer." [Rousseau (1952), p.3.]
An online copy of Book One, Section Chapter One, can be found here.
14a0. The point is that logical principles cannot supply generality of their own; this derives from the application of a rule, which, naturally, neither words, concepts, or principles can provide. Once again, it's human beings as a collective, not as individuals, who determine the application of a rule, since, as has been pointed out many times, words, concepts, principles have no intelligence and no social structure. That was, indeed, the point of emphasising the individuality of these 'logical principles' in this section of the Essay; the fragmentation introduced into bourgeois epistemology (both Rationalist and Empiricist forms) means that in the heads of lone thinkers, these 'concepts' could only operate as the names of certain particulars, or as particulars themselves, thus destroying generality and undermining the unity of the proposition.
[The phrase "undermining the unity of the proposition" refers to the fact that traditional logic in effect reduced propositions to lists of names, disarticulating them, since lists say nothing. This, of course, was the main theme of Part One.]
14a1. As Glenn Magee notes:
"What Hegel's system promises is a transformed experience of the world, in which we see familiar things in a new light. Science, poetry, art, religion, the state, are all seen to be expressions or embodiments of the Absolute. Ordinary things suddenly take on new meaning. That which had been thought to be a human contrivance, carried out only for finite human ends, devoid of any higher meaning, mystery or religious significance...is now suddenly imbued with spiritual significance.... Thus, Hegel attempts to heal the rift in the modern consciousness between thought and sensation, or thought and experience, by giving us a new form of experience. The very modern scientific and philosophical ideas that formerly seemed to cut us off from experience and from our intuitions of the divine are now seen to be moments of a system of experience that constitutes the divine itself. Hegel's system is an attempt to 're-enchant' the world, to re-invest nature with the experience of the numinous lost with the death of the mythical consciousness." [Magee (2001), p.97.] Bold emphasis added; quotation marks altered to conform to the conventions adopted at this site.]
14a2. Which might help explain why Trotsky argued as follows:
"Dialectic training of the mind, as necessary to a revolutionary fighter as finger exercises to a pianist, demands approaching all problems as processes and not as motionless categories. Whereas vulgar evolutionists, who limit themselves generally to recognizing evolution in only certain spheres, content themselves in all other questions with the banalities of 'common sense.'" [Trotsky (1971), p.70. Bold emphases added. Quotation marks altered to conform to the conventions adopted at this site.]
Like any opiate, continual hits become necessary.
14a. This also helps account for the rather odd fact that the more 'dialectical' the party, the more autocratic it seems to be (and the more prone it is the split). When it comes to imposing order on comrades, the dialectically-mailed fist soon replaces the invisible hand of reasonableness, and fights rapidly break out. This is especially true of Stalinists and Maoists when they actually manage to gain power. Their parties do not split or fragment (unlike us Trotskyists, who have turned fragmentation into an art form), they simply liquidate dissenters.
Well, one would expect this of a movement that has adopted such a Bonapartist theory.
[These ideas will be developed more extensively in Essay Nine Part Two in order to expose the damage DM has helped inflict on Marxism.]
15. In the bourgeois intellectual universe, populated by nothing but particularised ideas and lone thinkers, any attempt to prove there are other minds faces an impossible task.
Some may think we can extrapolate from their own experience to the conclusion that others are like them and have minds, too, but any theory based on only one (self-) observation (like this) is no better than a guess. Moreover, since the language used to formulate such a weak theory is hopelessly impoverished (since every word has been tuned into a name), it would be impossible to say towards what any such guess was directed. This is because, of course, belief in other minds requires the use of general words, which this theory lacks -- or, better, which it has just helped destroy.
[The details surrounding Wittgenstein's dissolution of these and other 'problems' will not be entered into here. I will say more on this in Essay Thirteen Part Three.
However, those new to his ideas should begin with Glock (1996), Kenny (1973), and Sluga and Stern (1996); also see here.]
16. This topic is discussed more fully in Essay Six.
16a. The 'relative stability' defence is demolished in Essay Six, too.
Anyway, any attempted reply that made use of the above response would be to no avail since, given DM-epistemology, no two dialecticians could possibly have the same idea about relative similarity, nor could they have the same idea about it as they themselves had only a few moments earlier. Again, it's no use replying that they'd have relatively the same idea about relatively the same idea, since the phrase "relatively the same" is up for grabs, too, having now no determinate sense. And the same would be true of any other words thrown in for good measure (no irony intended), including the word "word".
17. It would be no use appealing to the 'relative' or 'partial' nature of knowledge here since, as we shall see in Essay Ten, one of the implications of this doctrine is that a DM-view of reality is indistinguishable from Kant's Noumenon.
18. This idea is up-front in Kant, even if it was less clear in previous thinkers. However, since Hegel adapted Kant's view to suit his own ends, the passage in the text only needs to be true of post-Kantian Idealists for it to apply to DM (upside down or 'the right way up').
18a. The details behind Hegel's 'Rosicrucian leanings' this can be found in Magee (2001), pp.35-36, 51-53, 248-57. See also Benz (1983) and O'Regan (1995). On Rosicrucianism in general, see Yates (2004).
This terminally obscure 'intellectual' pursuit (i.e., the study of 'Subject/Object Identity') has dominated much of what passes for thought in the work of HCDs, just as it has formed an important strand in 'Continental Philosophy' for the last 200 years or so. Its origin in mystical thought (indeed, this union forms the main aim of all mystical systems) hardly raises a single eyebrow in either tradition, but especially not in ideologically-compromised HCD-cabals. In fact, I have lost count of the books and articles written (in both traditions) about this mystical union, between the Knower and the Known, between Subject and Object. [Of course, HCDs do not see things this way, but mystical union is nevertheless what they seek; indeed, in some cases they are quite open about it. More on this, here.]
An excellent example of this sort of material can be found here.
A summary of the background to this sorry affair can be found in Beiser (2005), and in more detail in Beiser (2002). Its mystical provenance is detailed in Benz (1983), Magee (2001), and O'Regan (1995). [The Introduction to Magee (2001) can be found here.]
One unfortunate HCD critic of this site has fallen under its spell too, here. See also here, where the same Hermetic virus can be found perhaps in a more concentrated form. [Several more examples of this HCD/DM-affliction will be given in Essays Twelve and Fourteen (summaries here and here).]
[HCD = High Church Dialectician, explained at the latter link.]
19. If the 'mind' knows only its own ideas and impressions (etc.), then the outer world cannot fail to be little more than a back-reflection/projection of what that mind contains. Furthermore, since the 'world' is not just a mere idea, but the subject's own idea, there would be, on this view, no real difference between the 'objective' and the 'subjective'.
Naturally, Empiricists will want to deny this; but if they are right, each one of them would simply be arguing with him/herself.
Others may object that this confuses Empiricism with Solipsism, but this is not so. In fact, it goes further; it identifies them. This is not just to pick on Empiricism; the logical outcome of the criticisms levelled here is that all metaphysical theories of knowledge collapse into some form of Solipsism.
That controversial claim will be defended in Part Four of this Essay.
20. Hegel:
"Every philosophy is essentially an idealism or at least has idealism for its principle, and the question then is only how far this principle is carried out." [Hegel (1999), pp.154-55; § 316.]
Of course, this means that even an upside-down and eviscerated version of his system, "on its feet" (i.e., DM) or not, is no less Ideal.
Hegel was quite clear: logic and the Divine Logos are one, and Nature is idea, and Idea is Logos:
"Actuality and thought (or Idea) are often absurdly opposed. How commonly we hear people saying that, though no objection can be urged against the truth and correctness of a certain thought, there is nothing of the kind to be seen in reality, or it cannot be actually carried out! People who use such language only prove that they have not properly apprehended the nature either of thought or of actuality. Thought in such a case is, one the one hand, the synonym for a subjective conception, plan, intention, or the like, just as actuality, on the other, is made synonymous with external and sensible existence. This is all very well in common life, where great laxity is allowed in the categories and the names given to them; and it may of course happen that, e.g., the plan, or so-called idea, say, of a certain method of taxation, is good and advisable in the abstract, but that nothing of the sort is found in so-called actuality, or could possibly be carried out under the given conditions. But when the abstract understanding gets hold of these categories and exaggerates the distinction they imply into a hard and fast line of contrast, when it tells us that in this actual world we must knock ideas out of our heads, it is necessary energetically to protest against these doctrines, alike in the name of science and of sound reason. For on the one hand Ideas are not confined to our heads merely, nor is the Idea, on the whole, so feeble as to leave the question of its actualisation or non-actualisation dependent on our will. The Idea is rather the absolutely active as well as actual." [Hegel (1975), p.201, § 142; I have used the on-line version here, and have left the MIA links in.]
"The divine Idea is just this: to disclose itself, to posit this Other outside itself and to take it back again into itself, in order to be subjectivity and Spirit... God therefore in determining Himself, remains equal to Himself; each of these moments is itself the whole Idea and must be posited as the divine totality. The different moments can be grasped under three different forms: the universal, the particular and the individual. First, the different moments remain preserved in the eternal unity of the Idea; this is the Logos, the eternal son of God as Philo conceived it... The third form which concerns us here, the Idea in the mode of particularity, is Nature....
"A rational consideration of Nature must consider how Nature is in its own self this process of becoming Spirit, of sublating its otherness -- and how the Idea is present in each grade or level of Nature itself...." [Hegel (2004), p.14, §247. As far as I can ascertain, there is no on-line version of this work; the one published at the MIA is not the same as this.]
And Hegel specifically links this conception of logic and the world with Ancient Greek theorists:
"This objective thinking then, is the content of pure science. Consequently, far from it being formal, far from it standing in need of a matter to constitute an actual and true cognition, it is its content alone which has absolute truth, or, if one still wanted to employ the word matter, it is the veritable matter -- but a matter which is not external to the form, since this matter is rather pure thought and hence the absolute form itself. Accordingly, logic is to be understood as the system of pure reason, as the realm of pure thought. This realm is truth as it is without veil and in its own absolute nature. It can therefore be said that this content is the exposition of God as he is in his eternal essence before the creation of nature and a finite mind.
"Anaxagoras is praised as the man who first declared that Nous, thought, is the principle of the world, that the essence of the world is to be defined as thought. In so doing he laid the foundation for an intellectual view of the universe, the pure form of which must be logic.
"What we are dealing with in logic is not a thinking about something which exists independently as a base for our thinking and apart from it, nor forms which are supposed to provide mere signs or distinguishing marks of truth; on the contrary, the necessary forms and self-consciousness of thought are the content and the ultimate truth itself." [Hegel (1999), p.50, §53-54. Bold emphases alone added.]
So, this is just another "ruling idea"...
20a. On this, see Note 20, above. This topic will be covered in more detail in Essay Twelve Parts Two to Four, and Essay Fourteen Part One (summaries here and here).
21. The comments in the text do not imply that Nominalism is my preferred option, nor even that it is 'correct'. In fact, as the Introductory Essay to this site pointed out, I reject all philosophical theories as non-sensical, and that includes Nominalism. [Why this is so is explained in detail in Essay Twelve Part One.]
22. As Lenin noted:
"Intelligent idealism is closer to intelligent materialism than stupid materialism.
"Dialectical idealism instead of intelligent; metaphysical, undeveloped, dead, crude, rigid instead of stupid." [Lenin (1961), p.274.]
It's quite clear from this that Lenin meant "Dialectical idealism is closer to intelligent materialism than crude materialism...".
And now we know why: Lenin's fatal compromise with "ruling ideas" undermined his materialist good sense. [How this happened (and what its ideological motivations were) will be the subject of Essays Nine Parts One and Two, and Essay Twelve (summary here).]
On this, see Note 23.
23. Diodorus Siculus is, in think, the originator of this phrase:
"When the Gigantes about Pallene chose to begin war against the immortals, Herakles fought on the side of the gods, and slaying many of the Sons of Ge he received the highest approbation. For Zeus gave the name of Olympian only to those gods who had fought by his side, in order that the courageous, by being adorned by so honourable a title, might be distinguished by this designation from the coward; and of those who were born of mortal women he considered only Dionysos and Herakles worthy of this name." [Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 4.15.1.]
But, my reference is in fact an allusion to to an image in Plato's Sophist, one of his more profound surviving works. Indeed, that dialogue is the principle source of much of subsequent Idealism. The part reproduced below features a conversation between an Eleatic "Stranger" (who appears to be a follower of Parmenides) and a character called "Theaetetus":
"Stranger. We are far from having exhausted the more exact thinkers who treat of being and not-being. But let us be content to leave them, and proceed to view those who speak less precisely; and we shall find as the result of all, that the nature of being is quite as difficult to comprehend as that of not-being....
"...There appears to be a sort of war of Giants and Gods going on amongst them; they are fighting with one another about the nature of essence.
"Theaetetus. How is that?
"Stranger. Some of them are dragging down all things from heaven and from the unseen to earth, and they literally grasp in their hands rocks and trees; of these they lay hold, and obstinately maintain, that the things only which can be touched or handled have being or essence, because they define being and body as one, and if any one else says that what is not a body exists they altogether despise him, and will hear of nothing but body.
"Theaetetus. I have often met with such men, and terrible fellows they are.
"Stranger. And that is the reason why their opponents cautiously defend themselves from above, out of an unseen world, mightily contending that true essence consists of certain intelligible and incorporeal ideas; the bodies of the materialists, which by them are maintained to be the very truth, they break up into little bits by their arguments, and affirm them to be, not essence, but generation and motion. Between the two armies, Theaetetus, there is always an endless conflict raging concerning these matters.
"Theaetetus. True.
"Stranger. Let us ask each party in turn, to give an account of that which they call essence.
"Theaetetus. How shall we get it out of them?
"Stranger. With those who make being to consist in ideas, there will be less difficulty, for they are civil people enough; but there will be very great difficulty, or rather an absolute impossibility, in getting an opinion out of those who drag everything down to matter. Shall I tell you what we must do?
"Theaetetus. What?
"Stranger. Let us, if we can, really improve them; but if this is not possible, let us imagine them to be better than they are, and more willing to answer in accordance with the rules of argument, and then their opinion will be more worth having; for that which better men acknowledge has more weight than that which is acknowledged by inferior men. Moreover we are no respecters of persons, but seekers after truth." [Plato (1997b), pp.267-68, 246a-246d. I have used the on-line version here.]
The battle itself is described in Hesiod's Theogony (lines 675-715), available here.
From this it's clear that Marxist Dialecticians are far closer to the Idealist Gods than they are to the materialist Giants!
[To be fair to John Rees, he does try to defend a DM-view of concepts that are not somehow 'fully material' -- that is, in his examination of "friendship", on pp.109-10, of TAR. That passage will be examined in detail in Essay Three Part Four.]
24. The views of some of these will be examined in Essay Thirteen Part Two.
[This is in fact part of Note 24.]
While we are at it, what exactly are the common features that can be abstracted from (or even attributed to) all shades of the colour blue, for example? Or the many notes that can be played on the bagpipes? Or the taste of several different wines? Or the feel of silk, wool and nylon? Or even the smell of roses?
[Of course, in several of these examples, the use of other general terms might come into play -- but they too will attract the same sort of query. For instance, an appeal might be made to certain tastes or aromas that can be detected in different wines -- for example, "a fruity taste". But what are the common features of "fruity tastes"? One answer to that might involve a reference to the taste of Lychees, for instance. But what are the common features of the taste of Lychees? And so on...]
[I owe this line of attack to Geach (1957).]
One of the more bizarre aspects of the mysterious process of abstraction (at least the Empiricist version (which is in fact also little different from that of certain dialecticians), and one that is rarely noticed) involves the drawing of an unintended analogy between the properties an object is supposed to have, and clothing. Hence, in the abstractive process, as each outwardly unique distinguishing feature of a particular is 'peeled off' (or "disregarded") by the intellect, the true form of the 'object' underneath gradually comes into view -- but, of course, only in the 'mind's eye'. This is, naturally, a disrobing ceremony accessible only to those capable of 'metaphysically undressing' things like tables, chairs, cats, dogs, electrons and galaxies. And these 'conceptual strippers' must be capable of deciding what must be true not only of all the many examples of 'the same sort' that have not been ideally fleeced like this (by anyone, and not just themselves), but also of the many more that no human will ever experience -- based solely on a brief 'internal' inspection of a highly limited sample of such metaphysical spectres.
However, and this should hardly need pointing out, the properties of objects do not resemble apparel in any meaningful sense. If this had ever been an apt analogy then these metaphysical garments (i.e., an object's properties) would be just as shareable as items of clothing are. On that basis, dogs should be expected to be able to sing like larks, kettles recite the Gettysburg Address, and dialecticians accept criticism.
Nevertheless, the analogy with clothing is not at all apt, and never was. For one thing, it is surely abnormal to imagine clothing as causally related to -- or physically connected with -- the body of the wearer. Yet, the properties of an object are normally regarded as linked in some way to its constitution. For another, while clothing may perhaps serve to hinder the appreciation of underlying form, an object's properties advertise it, they do not mask it. They are 'metaphysically transparent', so to speak.
Furthermore, and most absurdly, properties cannot be peeled away from objects in such an internal 'disrobing ceremony'. Or, if they can, one would expect that the nature of each underlying 'object' should become clearer in all its naked glory as the proceedings unfold. In fact, we find the opposite is the case as each 'metaphysical burlesque show' advances.
If, for instance, a cat were to lose too many of its properties (as it is 'mentally skinned'), it would cease to be a cat. Clearly, this philosophically-flayed 'ex-cat' (now 'non-cat') would serve rather badly in any generalisation based upon it. Indeed, strip the average moggie of enough of its properties and it would be impossible to decide whether or not the rest of the abstractive process had been carried out on the same mammal, the same animal, or, for that matter, on the same physical object -- let alone the same idea of one and all.
Moreover, in the absence of any rules governing the process of abstraction (such as where to begin, which feature to abstract first, which second -- which never) one person's abstractions would surely differ from those of the rest of the abstractive community.
For instance, while Abstractor A could begin by ignoring/attributing Tiddles's engaging purr, B might start with her four legs, whereas C might commence with her shape. But, do we/should they ignore/attribute first a cat's colour, fur, fleas, whiskers, tail, intestines, age, number...?
And, in abstractive process, which number relevant to each cat is to be put to one side (or attributed to it): the one cat, the two ears, the four legs, the dozen or so whiskers, or the several thousand billion atoms of which it is composed...?
And where do we stop? Are we to whittle-away (or attribute) its position on the mat, the last dozen or so things it did, its present relation to the Crab Nebula…?
It could be objected that this does not really matter, the results will be the same anyhow. But how do we know? Where is the rule book to guide us? Is there a sort of abstractionists' script we all unconsciously follow, programmed into us perhaps as a set of tried-and-trusted instructions? Are we all instinctive abstractors, or do we need training? And if there are metaphysical disrobing protocols determining the order in which Tiddles's qualities are to be paired away (or attributed to it), so that this is done correctly, when and where did we all learn them? If not, how might an intrepid abstractor know if he or she had abstracted Tiddles the same way each time?
Do we all keep a secret abstractor's diary?
And even if there were clear and plausible answers to these questions, the fact that (in principle) no one could check on any one else's abstractions to see if they tallied -- or if they had got them right (in fact the word "right" can gain no grip in such circumstances) -- means that this process cannot form the basis of an allegedly 'objective' science. Plainly, that is because no one has access to the results of anyone else's 'mental processes', and because there appear to be no rules governing them.
On the contrary, in the real world, agreement is reached by the use of publicly learnt and accessible general terms that were already in common use long before each of us was a twinkle in a local abstractor's eye.
[That is, of course, just a roundabout way of saying that "abstraction" is a highly misleading euphemism for subjective, idiosyncratic classification.]
One obvious reply to all this might be that we abstract by concentrating only on those factors that are "relevant" to the enquiry in hand. But what are these, and who decides? And how might these be specified before an enquiry has begun?
Again, in response to this it could be argued that past experience guides us here. But, how does it do this? Can any of us recall being made to study the heroic deeds of intrepid abstractors in days of yore? Does past experience transform itself into a sort of inner personal Microsoft Office Assistant, if we hit the right internal 'Help' key? But, what kind of explanation would that be of the allegedly intelligent power of abstraction if it requires such a guiding hand? And where on earth did this 'inner PA' receive its training?
Once more, it could be objected that in the investigation of, say, the biology of cats, it is important for scientists to find out what these animals have in common with other members of the same species, family, order, class or phylum, so that relevant generalisations might be made. In order to do this, zoologists disregard (or attribute) certain features common to cats and concentrate on those they share with other mammals, vertebrates, living things, and so on --, be they morphological, ecological, genetic or biochemical (etc.). Clearly, in each case, greater abstraction is required.
Or so the argument might go.
Nevertheless, if this is what "abstraction" means, it's surely synonymous with a publicly accessible and checkable set of performances, similar in all but name to description, analysis and classification (etc.). It has nothing to do with a private, internal 'skill' we are all supposed to possess of being able to polish rough and ready particulars into smooth general concepts. If abstraction were an occult, inner process then, as noted above, no two people would ever agree over the general idea of, say, a mammal, let alone that of a cat. All would have their own idiosyncratic inner, and intrinsically un-shareable, un-checkable exemplars.
Again, one response to this could be that while we might use language to facilitate the transition from a private to the public arena, this does not impugn our abstractive skills.
However, this objection introduces topics discussed in more detail in Essay Thirteen Part Three. Nevertheless, a few comments are worth making.
Human beings generally manage to agree on what they consider, say, mammals to be -- i.e., those who possess the relevant education/linguistic skills -- but, this does not include those who supposedly have unspecified abstractive powers. Zoologists do not gain their scientific qualifications by demonstrating to their teachers or colleagues their expertise with the inner dissection of mental images, ideas, or concepts. On the contrary, they have to show a mastery of highly specific techniques, vocabulary and theory, which they must demonstrate publicly, showing they are capable of applying them in appropriate circumstances, etc., etc.
The widespread illusion that we are all experts in the internal dismemberment of ideas is encouraged by another confusion that also originated in traditional Philosophy: the belief that the intelligent use of general words depends on some form of internal, mental naming, representing or processing ceremony. In effect, this amounts once more to the belief that, despite appearances to the contrary, all words are names, and that meaning something involves an inner "act of meaning/naming" or "representation", matching words to images, sensations, processes, or representations in the brain/'mind'.
At work here is another inappropriate set of metaphors, which trade on the idea that the mind functions like an inner theatre, TV or computer screen -- now refined with an analogy drawn against Microsoft Windows perhaps, wherein 'the mind' is described as "modular" (and operated, no doubt, by the internal analogue of a computer geek, skilled at 'clicking' on the right inner 'icons' at the right moment, filing things in the right folders and setting-up efficient 'networks', etc.). Given this family of metaphors, understanding is modelled on the way we now look at pictures (or "inner representations", again), using the equivalent of an inner eye to appraise whatever fortune sends its way.
This family of metaphors is a faint modern echo of Plato's theory of knowledge by acquaintance, and his allegory of the Cave. [It must be added that the former and the latter were intended to make different points for Plato himself.] Both of these picture knowledge as the passive processing of "representations" -- even if this was later beefed-up with a gesture toward practice, by dialecticians. Nevertheless, this view of knowledge turned it into a form of acquaintance: we all know our friends by acquaintance, or by sight, so we know the contents of our minds by acquaintance, or by sight. This underlines why traditional theory emphasised knowledge as a relation between a Knower and the Known. [More on this in Essay Three Part Four, Essay Thirteen Part Three (here and here) and Essay Six.]
Naturally, if this occult abstractive skill had ever been important in the history of science then we would find evidence to that effect in the work of great scientists. Alas there is none.
However, even the attempt to investigate the truth of that particular assertion would automatically throw into doubt the role abstraction is supposed to play in science. That is because such an inquiry would have to examine the documents and writings (etc.) of scientists -- not their brains. Indeed, any recognition of the relevance of the publicly available, linguistic production of such scientists, their equipment and techniques (etc.), their social surroundings -- as opposed to the contents of their heads -- would confirm that in their practical activity no historian actually believes that abstract ideas underpin scientific knowledge -- whatever theoretical and/or philosophical views he or she might otherwise rehearse in public.
Here, as elsewhere, actions speak louder than abstractions.
[Again, a limited range of examples drawn from the work of great scientists -- which disprove the contention that they were/are abstractors extraordinaire -- will be given in Essay Thirteen Part Three.]
But, Don't Scientists Use Abstraction?
Admittedly, this way of putting things might differ from the way that scientists themselves theorise about what they do. But once more: their practical activity belies whatever post hoc rationalisations they might advance concerning the nature of their work.
Except in certain areas of obsolete psychology, In seeking to advance scientific knowledge scientists report neither on the results of their processing of mental entities, nor on the contents of their heads -- and they certainly do not require the same with respect to the heads of others in their field, nor anywhere else for that matter. On the contrary, as far as their work is concerned, researchers develop new theories at the very least by extending the use and application of publicly accessible scientific language, theory and technique. And they action these by the use of analogy, metaphor and the novel employment of familiar general terms already in the public domain -- allied to the construction of specific models and "thought experiments", alongside various other rhetorical devices. [On this, see the references listed here.]
[Naturally, this does not mean that these features are unrelated to advances in technique motivated by the development of the forces of production, etc. However, as noted above, these issues will be discussed in more detail in Essay Thirteen Part Three.]
Despite this, it could be objected that the above comments thoroughly misrepresent the way that knowledge advances. In fact (but edited down) the objection could run as follows: scientists attempt to discover the underlying nature of objects and processes in the world in order to reveal the laws and regularities (etc.) that govern objective reality. To take just one example: an animal's essential nature -- arrived at by increased use of abstract terms -- turns out to be its DNA (or whatever). Another, but more general example could be the way that Physicists extend knowledge by developing increasingly abstract theories expressed in complex mathematical formulae and/or causal laws.
But, this cannot be correct; scientists manifestly did not discover DNA by the use of greater or more refined abstractions. They used the theoretical and practical advances achieved by earlier and current researchers (which themselves were not arrived at by abstraction), and augmented them with their own ideas (often these were those of a team of scientists, or those of a research tradition) and the results of other innovative experiments. All of these were based on cooperative work and observation -- assisted by the use of models, yet more 'thought experiments', all expressed in a public language and subsequently reported in an open arena.
None of these (save 'thought experiments') remotely looks like a mental process, still less an abstractive one. And as far as 'thought experiments' are concerned, these too are typically rehearsed in the public domain, and in a communal language. Any alleged 'mental processes' that accompany them are likewise connected with the innovative use of language -- but with the volume turned down.
['Thought experiments' will be discussed in more detail in Essay Thirteen Part Three; some of the relevant literature devoted to them is listed in Essay Four.]
Of course, it could be argued that no one supposes that abstraction is "done in the head", just as it could be acknowledged that scientists do indeed employ a theoretical/public language in their work. It might therefore be maintained that scientists still endeavour to form abstract ideas based on their use of resources such as these, and in this way.
Again, this is not what scientists actually do. The above is a myth put about by professional philosophers and amateur metaphysicians.
These somewhat controversial claims (that is, those relating to what scientists do, as opposed to what they imagine (or say) they do, or, indeed, with what certain philosophers think they do) will be substantiated (and illustrated) more fully in Essay Thirteen Part Three.
[This too is a continuation of Note 24.]
Nevertheless, anti-abstractionist thought is a relatively recent phenomenon. The first major thinker to subject it to detailed attack (outside the medieval Nominalist tradition, that is) was Berkeley.
[Berkeley's arguments against abstract ideas are summarised in Dancy (1987), pp.24-40; a different approach linked to Berkeley's Philosophy of Mathematics can be found in Jesseph (1993), pp.9-43. On Berkeley in general see here and here; his case against abstraction is expertly summarised here.]
Berkeley's arguments in this regard revolve around the observation that it is impossible to form an abstract idea of anything since that would require it to possess and not to possess several (incompatible) properties at one and the same time. He asks whether anyone:
"…has, or can attain to have, an idea that shall correspond with the description that is here given of the general idea of a triangle, which is, neither oblique, nor rectangle, equilateral, equicrural (Isosceles -- RL), nor scalenon (Scalene -- RL), but all and none of these at once." [Berkeley (1975b), p.81.]
Based on his own inability to form such abstract ideas, Berkeley casts doubt on the capacity of others to do the same:
"I can imagine a man with two heads or the upper parts of a man joined to the body of a horse. I can consider the hand, the eye, the nose, each by itself abstracted or separated from the rest of the body. But then whatever hand or eye I imagine, it must have some particular shape and colour. Likewise the idea of a man that I frame to myself, must be either of a white, or a black, or a tawny, a straight, or a crooked, a tall or low, or a middle-sized man. I cannot by any effort of thought conceive the abstract idea above described [of a general man]. And it is equally impossible for me to form the abstract idea of motion distinct from the body moving, and which is neither swift nor slow, curvilinear nor rectilinear; and the like may be said of all other abstract general ideas whatsoever." [Ibid., p.78.]
A somewhat similar argument can be found in Frege:
"By making one characteristic after another disappear, we get more and more abstract concepts…. Inattention is a most efficacious logical faculty; presumably this accounts for the absentmindedness of professors. Suppose there are a black and a white cat sitting side by side before us. We stop attending to their colour and they become colourless, but are still sitting side by side. We stop attending to their posture, and they are no longer sitting (though they have not assumed another posture) but each one is still in its place. We stop attending to position; they cease to have place, but still remain different. In this way, perhaps, we obtain from each one of them a general concept of Cat. By continual application of this procedure, we obtain from each object a more and more bloodless phantom. Finally we thus obtain from each object a something wholly deprived of content; but the something obtained from one object is different from the something obtained from another object -– though it is not easy to say how." [Frege (1980), pp.84-85.]
Frege's sharpest criticisms were reserved for those of his day who imagined that a process of abstraction underpinned mathematical concepts, in particular the views of the 19th century mathematician and mystical Platonist, Georg Cantor and his followers (on the mystical aspect of Cantor's work, see Aczel (2000)):
"Many mathematicians react to philosophical expressions in a [magical] manner. I am thinking in particular here of the following: 'define' (Brahma), 'reflect' (Vishnu), 'abstract' (Shiva). The names of the Indian gods in brackets are meant to indicate the kind of magical effects the expressions are supposed to have. If, for instance, you find that some property of a thing bothers you, you abstract from it. But if you want to call a halt to this process of destruction so that the properties you want to see retained should not be obliterated in the process, you reflect on these properties. If, finally, you feel sorely the lack of certain properties in the thing, you bestow them on it by definition. In your possession of these miraculous powers you are not far removed from the Almighty…. The following dialogue may serve as illustration:
"Mathematician: The sign Ö-1 has the property of yielding -1 when squared.
"Layman: This pattern of printer's ink on paper? I can't see any trace of this property. Perhaps it has been discovered with the aid of a microscope or by some chemical means?
"Mathematician: It can't be arrived at by any process of sense perception. And of course it isn't produced by the mere printer's ink either; a magic incantation, called a definition, has first to be pronounced over it.
"Layman: Ah, now I understand. You expressed yourself badly. You mean that a definition is used to stipulate that this pattern is a sign for something with those properties.
"Mathematician: Not at all! It is a sign, but it doesn't designate or mean anything. It itself has these properties, precisely in virtue of the definition.
"Layman: What extraordinary people you mathematicians are, and no mistake! You don't bother at all about the properties a thing actually has, but imagine that in their stead you can bestow a property on it by a definition -– a property that the thing in its innocence doesn't dream of -– and now you investigate the property and believe in that way you can accomplish the most extraordinary things!
"This illustrates the might of the mathematical Brahma. In Cantor it is Shiva and Vishnu who receive the greater honour. Faced with a cage of mice, mathematicians react differently when the number of them is in question. Some…include in the number the mice just as they are, down to the last hair; others -– and I may surely count Cantor amongst them -– find it out of place that hairs should form part of the number and so abstract from them. They find in mice a whole host of things besides which are out of place in number and are unworthy to be included in it. Nothing simpler: one abstracts from the whole lot. Indeed when you get down to it everything in the mice is out of place: the beadiness of their eyes no less than the length of their tails and the sharpness of their teeth…. [And] one abstracts presumably from all their properties, even from those in virtue of which we call them mice, even from those in virtue of which we call them animals, three-dimensional beings -– properties which distinguish them, for instance, from the number 2….
"So let us get a number of men together and ask them to exert themselves to the utmost in abstracting from the nature of pencil and the order in which its elements are given. After we have allowed them sufficient time for this difficult task, we ask the first 'What general concept…have you arrived at?' Non-mathematician that he is, he answers 'Pure Being.' The second thinks rather 'Pure nothingness', the third -– I suspect a pupil of Cantor's -– 'The cardinal number one.' A fourth is perhaps left with the woeful feeling that everything has evaporated, a fifth -– surely a pupil of Cantor's -– hears an inner voice whispering that graphite and wood, the constituents of the pencil, are 'constitutive elements', and so arrives at the general concept called the cardinal number two. Now why shouldn't one man come out with [one] answer and the other with another?…. But perhaps we got such varying replies because it was a pencil we carried out our experiment with. It may be said 'But a pencil isn't a set.' Why not? Well then, let us look at the moon. 'The moon is not a set either!' What a pity! The cardinal number one would be only too happy to come into existence at any place and at any time, and the moon seemed the very thing to assist at the birth. Well then, let us take a heap of sand. Oh dear, there's someone already trying to separate the grains. 'You are surely not going to try and count then all! That is strictly forbidden! You have to arrive at the number by a single act of abstraction!'…. 'What would happen to the infinite cardinals in that case? By the time you had looked at the last grain, you would be bound to have forgotten the first ones. I must emphasise, once more that you are meant to arrive at the number by a single act of abstraction. Of course for that you need the help of supernatural powers. Surely you don't imagine you can bring it off by ordinary abstraction?'" [Frege (1979), pp.69-71. Unfortunately, the manuscript breaks off at this point.]
Frege's paro